This chapter centers on the recent history of Andean indigenous people in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. In these countries indigenous history and the history of the peasantry overlap broadly; the majority of the rural population is indigenous in origin and most rural dwellers still subsist as peasants. (Exceptions are found along the Pacific coast, in the Amazonian lowlands, and in a few highland enclaves.) During the second half of the twentieth century, however, urban influences have become more and more a part of indigenous history, mostly via migration. In this chapter I take into account both rural and urban versions of indigenous identity. The indigenous peoples of Colombia and Chile are also discussed here, although their situations are somewhat distinct. The Andean area of Argentina receives passing mention. Intensifying relations among diverse modern native communities across political and ecological frontiers demand some treatment of these five countries’ other, non-Andean, indigenous groups, especially Amazonian networks, which interact in fundamental ways with each state’s Andean peoples. This articulation in turn generates new overarching processes. Following contemporary practices in various locations, we use the terms “indigenous”, “Indian” and “native peoples” interchangeably for all these peoples.

Published demographic statistics are unreliable where ethnic identity is concerned. Only in Peru and Bolivia do censuses even provide estimates on this topic, and they do so indirectly at best, via language. Such data tend to be imprecise because they fail to define the subject clearly and underestimate numbers. Many census respondents tend to hide information that could cause them problems, and census takers cover peripheral regions poorly. Although it is dated, and although some planners suspect overestimates while indigenous organizations allege the reverse, Mayer and Masferrer’s 1979 synthesis remains the most reliable detailed overview. According to those authors, as of about 1978 the indigenous composition of the Andean countries was as shown in Table 25.1.

These figures should be considered minima. Where detailed Indian censuses have been carried out, the actual figures tend to be higher. For example, in Chile, where the 1992 census specifically asked about ethnic identity, the resulting figure was 928,000 excluding people under 14 years of age.

We have tried to make our perspective reflect that of Andean and indigenous peoples themselves, more than that of states and larger societies.