Introduction

Chapter Four introduced the claims made for the contribution that third sector organisations can make to democratic life, acting as ‘schools for democracy’, giving citizens voice, and providing space for deliberation and debate. The work of Robert Putnam, for example, has linked engagement in voluntary associations with the development of social capital and hence to the development of the civil norms and trust that, he argues, form the basis of effective local governance (Putnam et al, 1993; Putnam, 2000). Others have argued that associationalism, as the primary means of both democratic governance and organising social life, should be at the root of democracy (Hirst, 1994, p 26). As indicated in previous chapters, this model resonates with a communitarian ideal of self-governing communities, which would enable all their members to participate in collective processes affecting their lives (see also Taylor, 2011).

Chapter Five then discussed the various ways in which both globalisation and the advance of a neoliberal ideology have affected the relationship between the state, market and the third sector in different parts of the world, opening up new opportunities but also posing new challenges. It described the risks to third sector independence posed by the move to market models of welfare and the way in which nongovernmental agencies (NGOs) have been socialised into the establishment and thus ‘have made a contribution, albeit minor in comparison to other actors, to the rolling back of the state’ (Hulme and Edwards, 1997, p 9). It also reported that, over recent decades, new spaces have been opening up for citizen voice at local, national and international levels (Cornwall and Coelho, 2007) and considered the risks of cooption but also the potential for resistance. This has clear implications for the promotion of active citizenship via political engagement. This chapter therefore explores further the third sector's role in promoting democratic engagement through civic engagement and citizen activism, the latter in the sense of challenging or changing dominant power relations and structures. In doing so, it draws on case studies for illustration.

The changing role of the third sector in democracy

The roots of modern democracy are usually traced back to ancient Athens, where citizens had a direct vote in decision making in the city state (Foley and Hodgkinson, 2003).