Introduction

Chimpanzees never were, are not now, and probably never will be human beings. The converse is equally true. Yet we and they are sibling species, chromosomally (Yunis & Prakash, 1982) and genetically (Goodman et al., 1990). Some taxonomies place human beings and the African apes in the same subfamily, the Homininae, a classification that would have been unthinkable a generation ago (Groves, 1986). As knowledge accumulates, again and again similarities impress us and force us to abandon cherished clichés of human uniqueness, such as that only human beings intentionally teach their offspring (Boesch, 1991a; Boesch & Boesch, 1992). Perhaps the key point is the one that Goodall (1971) has been making for years: Only when we are clear about the similarities between chimpanzee and human will we be able to recognise the real differences.

Conceiving of chimpanzees

Accurate interpretation of the capacities of such close relatives as apes is not easy (Jolly, 1991). The two variables are probably inversely correlated: the more like us a species is, the harder (not easier) it is to assess its abilities objectively. These difficulties of comparison take at least four forms:

In anthropomorphism, the abilities and motives of other species are over-estimated by interpreting them in human terms. Thus, superficial resemblances are typically endowed with the complex feelings and thoughts that humans have in similar situations.