Introduction

The leitmotiv underlying this book is the restored importance of cities in the last decades of the 20th century, a notoriety gained, at least partly, at the expense of the supremacy of the nation-states. This process, as the chapters of this book have strived to document, is the result of a century long evolution. Over the course of history, cities saw their power and influence contracting and expanding, according to the consolidation of upper-level authorities limiting their room for manoeuvre. As already discussed in Chapter 2, a turning point not only in urban history, but also in international relations was marked by the Westphalian Treaty ratified in 1648. That event laid the foundation of the state-centric world political system, which endured – despite all the dramatic changes that occurred in between – until the end of the Cold War in 1989. This latter historical juncture shook the world order, eroding the pre-eminence of sovereign states and bringing new players onto the international (and European) chessboard. Among them, local authorities have moved strategically to build up their political credibility, push their urban agendas, access extra sources of funding and attract international capital.

The (re-)gained importance of European cities could not but impact on their relationship with the central state. The state–local relations are, as described in Chapter 2, ‘liaisons dangereuses’, where the two parts are often at variance, but they are essential to one another (Tilly, 1989, p 571). The more or less latent tension between states and cities has prompted centrifugal movements, leading cities to develop ties with other peers, civil society and the EU – often in the attempt to escape the grip of the nation-state. The latter is circumvented by cities whenever it is absent or posits compelling limitations to the ambitions of city administrations. These two extremes, either no and total state control, spur local authorities to either look out for alternative aids to tackle urban issue or to break free from the state's shackles.

In this final chapter, I will take stock of the main conclusions reached in the previous chapters. In particular, I will embed the discussion laid out in the following pages in the debate on the new international order that replaced the state-centric Westphalian system. The chapter will draw to a close by considering the arguments upholding cities as the suitable level to rescue the European project.