American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar

Anders, S. L., Frazier, P. A., & Frankfurt, S. B. (2011). Variations in criterion A and PTSD rates in a community sample of women. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(2), 176–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Barton, S., Boals, A., & Knowles, L. (2013). Thinking about trauma: the unique contributions of event centrality and posttraumatic cognitions in predicting PTSD and posttraumatic growth. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 718–726.Google Scholar

Baumeister, R. (1991). Meanings of Life. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2006). The centrality of event scale: a measure of integrating a trauma into one's identity and its relation to post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(2), 219–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2007). When a trauma becomes a key to identity: enhanced integration of trauma memories predicts posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21(4), 417–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boals, A. (2010). Events that have become central to identity: gender differences in the centrality of events scale for positive and negative events. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(1), 107–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boals, A. (2012). The use of meaning making in expressive writing: when meaning is beneficial. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 31(4), 393–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boals, A., & Murrell, A. R. (2014). I am > trauma: the use of modified acceptance and commitment therapy to reduce event centrality and PTSD symptoms in a pseudo-randomized clinical trial. Manuscript submitted for publication.+trauma:+the+use+of+modified+acceptance+and+commitment+therapy+to+reduce+event+centrality+and+PTSD+symptoms+in+a+pseudo-randomized+clinical+trial.+Manuscript+submitted+for+publication.>Google Scholar

Boals, A., & Schuettler, D. (2009). PTSD symptoms in response to traumatic and non-traumatic events: The role of respondent perception and the A2 criterion. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 458–462.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Boals, A., & Schuettler, D. (2011). A double-edged sword: event centrality, PTSD and posttraumatic growth. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 817–822.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boals, A., Steward, J., & Schuettler, D. (2010). Advancing our understanding of posttraumatic growth by considering even centrality. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 15(6), 518–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boals, A., Banks, J. B., Hathaway, L. M., & Schuettler, D. (2011). Coping with stressful events: use of cognitive words in stressful narratives and the meaning-making process. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 30(4), 378–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boals, A., Hayslip, B. Jr., Knowles, L. R., & Banks, J. B. (2012). Perceiving a negative event as central to one's identity partially mediates age differences in posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Journal of Aging and Health, 24(3), 459–474.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Boelen, P. A. (2012). A prospective examination of the association between the centrality of a loss and post-loss psychopathology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 137(1–3), 117–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bonanno, G. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59(1), 20–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Breslau, N. (2002). Epidemiologic studies of trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and other psychiatric disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 47(10), 923–929.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Breslau, N., Davis, G., Andrewski, P., & Peterson, E. (1991). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 216–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Breslau, N., Chilcoat, H., Kessler, R., Peterson, E., & Lucia, V. (1999). Vulnerability to assaultive violence: further specification of the sex difference in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 29, 813–821.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Brewin, C. R. (2001). A cognitive neuroscience account of posttraumatic stress disorder and its treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(4), 373–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103(4), 670–686.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 748–766.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Brewin, C. R., Gregory, J.D., Lipton, M., & Burgess, N. (2010). Intrusive images in psychological disorders: Characteristics, neural mechanisms, and treatment implications. Psychological Review, 117, 210–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Brown, A. D., Antonius, D., Kramer, M., Root, J. C., & Hirst, W. (2010). Trauma centrality and PTSD in veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(4), 496–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Calhoun, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (1999). Facilitating Posttraumatic Growth: A Clinician's Guide. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107(2), 261–288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Crane, L., Goddard, L., & Pring, L. (2010). Brief report: self-defining and everyday autobiographical memories in adults with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(3), 383–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Dalgleish, T. (2004). Cognitive approaches to posttraumatic stress disorder: the evolution of multirepresentational theorizing. Psychological Bulletin, 130(2), 228–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Davis, C., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Larson, J. (1998). Making sense of loss and benefiting from the experience: two construals of meaning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 561–574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Denson, T., Marshall, G., Schell, T., & Jaycox, L. (2007). Predictors of posttraumatic distress 1 year after exposure to community violence: the importance of acute symptom severity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(5), 683–692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(4), 319–345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Foa, E. B., Molnar, C., & Cashman, L. (1995). Change in rape narratives during exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 675–690.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Foa, E. B., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Tolin, D. F., & Orsillo, S. M. (1999). The posttraumatic cognitions inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 11(3), 303–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gerber, M. M., Boals, A., & Schuettler, D. (2011). The unique contributions of positive and negative religious coping to posttraumatic growth and PTSD. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 3(4), 298–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gill, J. M., & Page, G. G. (2006). Psychiatric and physical health ramifications of traumatic events in women. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 27(7), 711–734.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Graybeal, A., Seagal, J. D., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2002). The role of story-making in disclosure writing: the psychometrics of narrative. Psychology and Health, 17, 571–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Groleau, J. M., Calhoun, L. G., Cann, A., & Tedeschi, R. G. (2013). The role of centrality of events in posttraumatic distress and posttraumatic growth. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 5(5), 477–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Helgeson, V., Reynolds, K., & Tomich, P. (2006). A meta-analytic review of benefit finding and growth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(5), 797–816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Horowitz, M. J. (1975). Intrusive and repetitive thoughts after experimental stress. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32, 1457–1463.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Janoff-Bulman, R. (1989). Assumptive worlds and the stress of traumatic events: applications of the schema construct. Social Cognition, 7(2), 113–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kessler, R., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048–1060.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

King, L., Scollon, C., Ramsey, C., & Williams, T. (2000). Stories of life transition: subjective well-being and ego development in parents of children with Down syndrome. Journal of Research in Personality, 34(4), 509–536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Klein, K., & Boals, A. (2001). Expressive writing can increase working memory capacity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130(3), 520–533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lancaster, S. L., Rodriguez, B. F., & Weston, R. (2011). Path analytic examination of a cognitive model of PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(3), 194–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lensvelt-Mulders, G., van der Hart, O., van Ochten, J. M., van Son, M. J. M., Steele, K., & Breeman, L. (2008). Relations among peritraumatic dissociation and posttraumatic stress: a meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 1138–1151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Linley, P., & Joseph, S. (2004). Positive change following trauma and adversity: a review. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17(1), 11–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Linley, P., & Joseph, S. (2006). The positive and negative effects of disaster work: a preliminary investigation. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 11, 229–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Linley, P., Joseph, S., Cooper, R., Harris, S., & Meyer, C. (2003). Positive and negative changes following vicarious exposure to the September 11 terrorist attacks. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 481–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mason, S., Turpin, G., Woods, D., Wardrope, J., & Rowlands, A. (2006). Risk factors for psychological distress following injury. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45, 217–230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

McAdams, D. P., Josselson, R., & Lieblich, A. (eds.). (2006). Identity and Story: Creating Self in Narrative. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Morris, B. A., Shakespeare-Finch, J., Rieck, M., & Newbery, J. (2005). Multidimensional nature of posttraumatic growth in an Australian population. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(5), 575–585.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Nemeroff, C., Bremner, J., Foa, E., Mayberg, H., North, C., & Stein, M. (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder: a state-of-the-science review. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Norris, F. (1992). Epidemiology of trauma: frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 409–418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2008). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: a meta-analysis. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, S(1), 3–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Park, C. L. (2010). Making sense of the meaning literature: an integrative review of meaning making and its effects on adjustment to stressful life events. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 257–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Park, C. L., & Ai, A. L. (2006). Meaning making and growth: new directions for research on survivors of trauma. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 11, 389–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Park, C., Cohen, L., & Murch, R. (1996). Assessment and prediction of stress-related growth. Journal of Personality, 64(1), 71–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Pennebaker, J. W., Mayne, T. J., & Francis, M. E. (1997). Linguistic predictors of adaptive bereavement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(4), 863–871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Pillemer, D. B. (1998). What is remembered about early childhood events? Clinical Psychology Review, 18(8), 895–913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Pinto-Gouveia, J., & Matos, M. (2011). Can shame memories become a key to identity? The centrality of shame memories predicts psychopathology. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25(2), 281–290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ramírez-Esparza, N., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2006). Do good stories produce good health?: Exploring words, language, and culture. Narrative Inquiry, 16(1), 211–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Robinaugh, D. J., & McNally, R. J. (2011). Trauma centrality and PTSD symptom severity in adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(4), 483–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rubin, D. C., & Berntsen, D. (2003). Life scripts help to maintain autobiographical memories of highly positive, but not highly negative, events. Memory and Cognition, 31(1), 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rubin, D.C. & Feeling, N. (2013). Measuring the severity of negative and traumatic events. Clinical Psychological Science, 1, 375-389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rubin, D. C., Berntsen, D., & Bohni, M. K. (2008a). A memory-based model of posttraumatic stress disorder: evaluating basic assumptions underlying the PTSD diagnosis. Psychological Review, 115, 985–1011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rubin, D. C., Boals, A., & Berntsen, D. (2008b). Memory in posttraumatic stress disorder: Properties of voluntary and involuntary, traumatic and nontraumatic autobiographical memories in people with and without posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137(4), 591–614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rubin, D.C., Boals, A., & Hoyle, R. H. (2013). Narrative centrality and negative affectivity: Independent and interactive contributors to stress reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. Advance online publication.Google Scholar

Schlenger, W., Kulka, R., Fairbank, J., Hough, R., Jorda, B., & Marmar, C. (1992). The prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder in the Vietnam generation: a multimethod, multisource assessment of psychiatric disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 333–363.Google Scholar

Schnider, K., Elhai., J., & Gray, M. (2007). Coping style use predicts posttraumatic stress and complicated grief symptoms severity among college students reporting a traumatic loss. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 344–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Schuettler, D., & Boals, A. (2011). The path to posttraumatic growth versus PTSD: contributions of event centrality and coping. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 16(2), 180–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Singer, J. A. (1995). Seeing one's self: locating narrative memory in a framework of personality. Journal of Personality, 63(3), 429–457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Smyth, J., True, N., & Souto, J. (2001). Effects of writing about traumatic experiences: the necessity for narrative structure. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20, 161–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1996). The posttraumatic growth inventory: measure the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 455–471.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2008). Beyond the concept of recovery: Growth and the experience of loss. Death Studies, 32, 27–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Tedeschi, R. G., Park, C. L., & Calhoun, L. G. (1998). Posttraumatic growth: conceptual issues. In Tedeschi, R. & Calhoun, L. (eds.), Posttraumatic Growth: Positive Changes in the Aftermath of Crisis (pp. 1–22). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Tedeschi, R. G., Calhoun, L. G., & Cann, A. (2007). Evaluating resource gain: understanding and misunderstanding posttraumatic growth. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 56(3), 396–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Tolin, D. F., & Foa, E. B. (2008). Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: a quantitative review of 25 years of research. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Practice, and Policy, 1, 37–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Vogt, D. S., King, D. W., & King, L. A. (2007). Risk pathways for PTSD: making sense of the literature. In Friedman, M. J., Keane, T. M., & Resick, P. A. (eds.), Handbook of PTSD: Science and Practice (pp. 99–115). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Witvliet, C., Phipps, K., Feldman, M., & Beckham, J. (2004). Posttraumatic mental and physical health correlates of forgiveness and religious coping in military veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17(3), 269–273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Wild, N., & Pavio, S. (2003). Psychological adjustment, coping, and emotional regulation as predictors of post-traumatic growth. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 8, 97–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar