Abbs, D. J., 1986: Sea-breeze interactions along a concave coastline in southern Australia: observations and numerical modeling study. Mon. Wea. Rev., 114, 831–482.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Abd El Rahman, A. A., 1986: The deserts of the Arabian Peninsula. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, Ecosystems of the World Volume 12B. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Eds.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, 29–54

Abdulaziz, A., 1994: A study of three types of wind-blown dust in Kuwait: Duststorms, rising dust and suspended dust. J. Meteor., 19, 19–23Google Scholar

Abrahams, A. D., and Parsons, A. J., 1991: Relation between infiltration and stone cover on a semiarid hillslope, Southern Arizona. J. Hydrology, 122, 49–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ackerman, S. A., and Chung, H., 1992: Radiative effects of airborne dust on regional energy budgets at the top of the atmosphere. J. Appl. Meteor., 31, 223–332.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ackerman, S. A., and Cox, S. K., 1982: The Saudi Arabian heat low: Aerosol distribution and thermodynamic structure. J. Geophys. Res., 87, 8991–9002CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ackerman, S. A., and Inoue, T., 1994: Radiation energy budget studies using collocated AVHRR and ERBE observations. J. Appl. Meteor., 33, 370–82.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Acocks, J. P. H., 1952: Veld Types of South Africa. Department of Agriculture and Water Supply, Pretoria, South Africa

Adams, D. K., and Comrie, A. C., 1997: The North American monsoon. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 78, 2197–2132.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Adolph, E. F. (Ed.), 1969: Physiology of Man in the Desert. Hafner Publishing Company, New York

Agassi, M., Y. Benyamini, J. Morin, S. Marish, and E. Henkin, 1996: Runoff and erosion control in Israel. In Runoff, Infiltration and Subsurface Flow of Water in Arid and Semi-arid Regions. A. S. Issar and S. D. Resnick (Eds.), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 63–120

Agnew, C. T., 1988: Soil hydrology in the Wahabi sands. J. Oman Studies, Special Report no. 3, pp. 191–200

Agnew, C. T., 1990: Spatial aspects of drought in the Sahel. J. Arid Environments, 18, 279–93Google Scholar

Agnew, C. T., and E. Anderson, 1992: Water Resources in the Arid Realm. Routledge, London

Ahrens, C. D., 2000: Meteorology Today: An Introduction to Weather, Climate, and the Environment. Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove

Aizenshtat, B. A., 1960: The heat balance and microclimate of certain landscapes in a sandy desert. U. S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau (translated from Russian by George S. Mitchell), Washington, D.C.

Al-Shalash, A. H., 1966: The Climate of Iraq. The Cooperative Printing Presses Workers Society, Amman, Jordan

Albertson, J. D., Parlange, M. B., Katul, G. G., Chu, C.-R., Stricker, H., and Tyler, S., 1995: Sensible heat flux from arid regions: A simple flux-variance method. Water Resour. Res., 31, 969–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Allison, G. B., and Barnes, C. J., 1985: Estimation of evaporation from the normally “dry” Lake Frome in South Australia. J. Hydrology, 78, 229–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Allison, R. F., 1997: Middle East and Arabia. In Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process Form and Change in Drylands. D. S. G. Thomas (Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 507–21

Alonso, S., Portela, A., and Ramis, C., 1994: First considerations on the structure and development of the Iberian thermal low-pressure system. Ann. Geophys., 12, 457–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Alpert, P., Kaufman, Y. J., Shay-El, Y., Tanre, D., , A. da Silva, Schubert, S., and Joseph, J. H., 1998: Quantification of dust-forced heating of the lower troposphere. Nature, 395, 367–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ambroggi, R. P., 1966: Water and the Sahara. Scientific American, 214, 21–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Amiran, D. H. K., and A. W. Wilson (Eds.), 1973: Coastal Deserts: Their Natural and Human Environments. University of Arizona Press, Tucson

Anderson, R. S., 1987: Eolian sediment transport as a stochastic process: The effects of a fluctuating wind on particle trajectories. J. Geology, 95, 497–512CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Andrews, R. C., 1921: Across Mongolian Plains. Blue Ribbon Books, New York

Andrews, R. C., 1932: The New Conquest of Central Asia. The American Museum of Natural History, New York

Anthes, R. A., 1984: Enhancement of convective precipitation by mesoscale variations in vegetative covering in semi-arid regions. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 23, 541–542.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Arakawa, H. (Ed.), 1969: Climates of Northern and Eastern Asia. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam

Armstrong, R. W. (Ed.), 1983: Atlas of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu

Arritt, S., 1993: Deserts. The Readers Digest Association, Pleasantville

Ash, J. E., and Wasson, R. J., 1983: Vegetation and sand mobility in the Australian desert dunefield. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, suppl. 45, 7–25Google Scholar

Ashburn, E. V., and Weldon, R. G., 1956: Spectral diffuse reflectance of desert surfaces. J. Optical Soc. Amer., 46, 583–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Atkinson, B. W., 1981: Meso-scale Atmospheric Circulations. Academic Press, London

Aubreville, A., 1949: Climats, forêts et désertification de l'Afrique tropicale. Société de éditions géographiques, maritimes et coloniales, Paris

AUSLIG (Australian Surveying and Land Information Group), 1992: The Ausmap Atlas of Australia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Austin, M., 1903: The Land of Little Rain. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque (second printing, 1976)

Austin, M., 1924: The Land of Journeys' Ending. University of Arizona Press, Tucson (second printing, 1983)

Avissar, R., and Pan, H., 2000: Simulations of the summer hydrometeorological processes of Lake Kinneret. J. Hydrometeor., 1, 95–1092.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Axelrod, D. I., 1983: Paleobotanical history of the western deserts. In Origin and Evolution of Deserts. S. G. Wells and D. R. Haragan (Eds.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 113–29

Ayyad, M. A., and S. I. Ghabbour, 1986: Hot deserts of Egypt and the Sudan. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, Ecosystems of the World Volume 12B. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Eds.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, pp. 149–202

Bader, D. C., and McKee, T. B., 1983: Dynamical model simulation of the morning boundary layer development in deep mountain valleys. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 22, 341–512.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bagnold, R. A., 1935: Libyan Sands: Travel in a Dead World. Michael Haag Limited, London

Bagnold, R. A., 1954: The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. Methuen, London

Bagnold, R. A., 1990: Sand, Wind and War. University of Arizona Press, Tucson

Bahre, C. J., and Bradbury, D. E., 1978: Vegetation change along the Arizona-Sonora boundary. Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geographe., 68, 145–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bailey, H. P., 1958: A simple moisture index based upon a primary law of evaporation. Geograf. Ann., 1, 1–16Google Scholar

Bailey, H. P., 1981: Climate features of deserts. In Water in Desert Ecosystems. D. D. Evans and J. L. Thames (Eds.), Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, Stroudsburg, pp. 13–41

Bailey, R. W., 1941: Climate and settlement of the arid region. In Climate and Man: Yearbook of Agriculture – 1941, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., pp. 188–96

Balland, D., 1994: Hidden waters. The UNESCO Courier: A Window Open on the World, 47–1, 30–3Google Scholar

Balling, R. C. Jr., 1988: The climatic impact of a Sonoran vegetation discontinuity. Climatic Change, 13, 99–109CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Balling, R. C. Jr., 1989: The impact of summer rainfall on the temperature gradient along the United States-Mexican border. J. Appl. Meteor., 28, 304–82.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Balling, R. C. Jr., and Brazel, S. W., 1989: High-resolution nighttime temperature patterns in Phoenix. J. Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science, 23, 49–53Google Scholar

Balling, R. C. Jr., and Cerveny, R. S., 1987: Long-term associations between wind speeds and the urban heat island of Phoenix, Arizona. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 26, 712–162.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bar-Ziv, J., and Goldberg, G. M., 1974: Simple siliceous pneumoconiosis in Negev Bedouins. Archives of Environmental Health, 29, 121–6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Barlow, M., Nigam, S., and Berbery, E. H., 1998: Evolution of the North American monsoon system. J. Climate, 11, 2238–572.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Barnes, C. J., Allison, G. B., and Hughes, M. W., 1989: Temperature gradient effects on stable isotopes and chloride profiles in dry soils. J. Hydrology, 112, 69–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Barnston, A. G., and Schickedanz, P. T., 1984: The effect of irrigation on warm-season precipitation in the Southern Great Plains. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 23, 865–882.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bass, D. E., 1963: Thermoregulatory and circulatory adjustments during acclimatization to heat in man. In Temperature, its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, Vol. 3, Pt. 3., C. M. Hertzfeld and J. D. Hardy (Eds.), Reinhold, New York, pp. 299–305

Beals, E. W., 1965: The remnant cedar forests of Lebanon. J. Ecology, 53, 679–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Beard, J. S., 1949: The Natural Vegetation of the Windward and Leeward Islands. Oxford University Press, London

Beebe, R. C., 1974: Large scale irrigation and severe storm enhancement. Proceedings, Symposium on Atmospheric Diffusion and Air Pollution, 9–13 September, Santa Barbara, California, American Meteorological Society (co-sponsored by World Meteorological Organization), pp. 392–5

Beljaars, A. C. M., Viterbo, P., and Miller, M. J., 1996: The anomalous rainfall over the United States during July 1993: Sensitivity to land surface parameterization and soil moisture anomalies. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 362–832.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bender, G. L. (Ed.), 1982: Reference Handbook on the Deserts of North America. Greenwood Press, Westport

Berger, A. (Ed.), 1981: Climate Variations and Variability: Facts and Theories. D. Reidell Publishing Company, Dordrecht

Berger, A., 1984: Accuracy and frequency stability of the Earth's orbital elements during the Quaternary. In Milankovitch and Climate: Understanding the Response to Astronomical Forcing, Vol. 1. A. Berger, J. Imbrie, J. Hays, G. Kukla, and B. Saltzman (Eds.), D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, pp. 3–53

Berger, A., J. Imbrie, J. Hays, G. Kukla, and B. Saltzman (Eds.), 1984: Milankovitch and Climate: Understanding the Response to Astronomical Forcing, Vols. 1 and 2. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht

Berger, I. A., 1997: South America. In Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process Form and Change in Drylands. D. S. G. Thomas (Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 543–62

Berkofsky, L., 1976: The effect of variable surface albedo on atmospheric circulation in desert regions. J. Appl. Meteor., 15, 1139–442.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Berrah, M., 1994: Screenplays in the sand. The UNESCO Courier: A Window Open on the World, 47–1, 21–4Google Scholar

Betancourt, J. L., Latorre, C., Rech, J. A., Quade, J., and Rylander, K. A., 2000: A 22,000-year record of monsoonal precipitation from northern Chile's Atacama Desert. Science, 289, 1542–6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Betzer, P. R., Carder, K. L., Duce, R. A., and 9 others, 1988: Long-range transport of giant mineral aerosol particles. Nature, 336, 568–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bingham, S., 1996: The Last Ranch: A Colorado Community and the Coming Desert. Harcourt Brace, San Diego

Bitan, A., 1974: The wind regime in the north-west section of the Dead Sea. Arch. Met. Geophys. Bioklim., B22, 313–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bitan, A., 1977: The influence of the special shape of the Dead Sea and its environment on the local wind system. Arch. Met. Geophys. Bioklim., B24, 283–301CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bitan, A., 1981: Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee) and its exceptional wind system. Bound. Layer Meteor., 21, 477–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bitan, A., and Sa'aroni, H., 1992: The horizontal and vertical extension of the Persian Gulf pressure trough. Intl. J. Climatol., 12, 733–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Black, J. F., 1963: Weather control: Use of asphalt coatings to tap solar energy. Science, 139, 226–7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Black, J. F., and Tarmy, B. I., 1963: The use of asphalt coatings to increase rainfall. J. Appl. Meteor., 2, 557–642.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Blackmore, C., 1995: The Worst Desert on Earth: Crossing the Taklamakan. John Murray, London

Blake, D. W., Krishnamurti, T. N., Low-Nam, S., and Fein, J. S., 1983: Heat low over the Saudi Arabian desert during May 1979 (Summer MONEX). Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 1759–752.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boffi, J. A., 1949: Effects of the Andes Mountains on the general circulation over the southern part of South America. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 30, 242–7Google Scholar

Bond, W. J., Stock, W. D., and Hoffman, M. T., 1994: Has the Karoo spread? A test for desertification using stable carbon isotopes. South African J. Science, 90, 391–7Google Scholar

Borchert, J., 1950: The climate of the central North American grassland. Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geographs., 40, 1–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bosilovich, M. G., and Schubert, S. D., 2002: Water vapor tracers as diagnostics of the regional hydrologic cycle. J. HydroMeteor., 3, 149–652.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boudet, G., 1972: Désertification de l'Afrique tropicale sèche. Adansonia, Ser. 2, 12, 505–24Google Scholar

Bounoua, L., and Krishnamurti, T. N., 1991: Thermodynamic budget of the five-day wave over the Saharan Desert during summer. Meteor. Atmos. Phys., 47, 1–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bouwer, H., 1975: Predicting reduction in water losses from open channels by phreatophyte control. Water Resour. Res., 11, 96–101CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bowers, J. E., 1986: Dune Country. University of Arizona Press, Tucson

Bowers, S. A., and Hanks, R. J., 1965: Reflection of radiant energy from soils. Soil Science, 100, 130–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bowker, D. E., and Davis, R. E., 1992: Influence of atmospheric aerosols and desert reflectance properties on satellite radiance measurements. Int. J. Remote Sensing, 13, 3105–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bowler, J. M., and R. J. Wasson, 1984: Glacial age environments of inland Australia. In Late Cenozoic Palaeoclimates of the Southern Hemisphere. J. C. Vogel (Ed.), Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 183–208

Bowles, P. F., 1949: The Sheltering Sky. The Ecco Press, Hopewell

Bowman, I., 1924: Desert Trails of Atacama. American Geographical Society, Special Publication no. 5, New York

Bowman, I., 1935: Our expanding and contracting “desert”. Geographical Rev., 25, 43–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brandt, C. J., and J. B. Thornes (Eds.), 1996: Mediterranean Desertification and Land Use. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester

Braud, I., Noilhan, J., Bessemoulin, P., Mascart, P., Haverkamp, R., and Vauclin, M., 1993: Bare-ground surface heat and water exchanges under dry conditions: Observations and parameterization. Bound. Layer Meteor., 66, 173–200CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Braudel, F., 1972: The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, Vol. 1. Harper and Row, New York

Brazel, A. J., and S. Hsu, 1981: The climatology of hazardous Arizona dust storms. In Desert Dust, T. L. Péwé (Ed.), Geological Society of America, Special Paper 186, pp. 293–303

Brazel, A. J., W. G. Nickling, and J. Lee, 1986: Effect of antecedent moisture conditions on dust storm generation in Arizona. In Aeolian Geomorphology. W. G. Nickling (Ed.), Allen and Unwin, Boston, pp. 261–71

Breckle, S. W., 1983: The temperate deserts and semi-deserts of Afghanistan and Iran. In Temperate Deserts and Semi-Deserts, Ecosystems of the World Volume 5. N. E. West (Ed.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, pp. 271–319

Breed, C. S., S. C. Fryberger, S. Andrews, C. McCauley, F. Lennartz, D. Gebel, and K. Horstman, 1979: Regional studies of sand seas using Landsat (ERTS) imagery. In A Study of Global Sand Seas. E. D. McKee (Ed.), U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1052, pp. 305–98

Bridenbaugh, C., and R. Bridenbaugh, 1972: No Peace Beyond the Line – The English in the Caribbean 1624–1690. Oxford University Press, New York

Broccoli, A. J., and Manabe, S., 1992: The effects of orography on midlatitude Northern Hemisphere dry climates, J. Climate, 5, 1181–2012.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brody, L. R., 1977: Meteorological Phenomena of the Arabian Sea. US Naval Environmental Prediction Research Facility, Monterey, NEPRF Application Report AR-77-01

Brown, A. H., 1969a: Water requirements of man in the desert. In Physiology of Man in the Desert. E. F. Adolph (Ed.), Hafner Publishing Company, New York, pp. 115–35

Brown, A. H., 1969b: Survival without drinking water in the desert. In Physiology of Man in the Desert. E. F. Adolph (Ed.), Hafner Publishing Company, New York, pp. 271–9

Brown, B. G., Katz, R. W., and Murphy, A. H., 1985: Exploratory analysis of precipitation events with implications for stochastic modeling. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 24, 57–672.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brubaker, K. L., Entekhabi, D., and Eagleson, P. S., 1993: Estimation of continental precipitation recycling. J. Climate, 6, 1077–892.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bruintjes, R. T., 1999: A review of cloud seeding experiments to enhance precipitation and some new prospects. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 805–202.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brutsaert, W. H., 1982: Evaporation Into the Atmosphere: Theory, History and Applications. Reidel, Dordrecht

Bryant, N. A., Johnson, L. F., Brazel, A. J., Balling, R. C., Hutchinson, C. F., and Beck, L. R., 1990: Measuring the effect of overgrazing in the Sonoran Desert. Climatic Change, 17, 243–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bryson, R. A., 1978: The albedo pattern of the La Joya dunes. In Exploring the World's Driest Climate. H. H. Lettau and K. Lettau (Ed.), IES Report 101, Univ of Wisconsin, Madison, pp. 54–6

Bryson, R. A., and Baerreis, D. A., 1967: Possibilities of major climatic modification and their implications: Northwest India, a case study. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 48, 136–42Google Scholar

Bryson, R. A., and F. K. Hare (Eds.), 1974: Climates of North America. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam

Bryson, R. A., C. A. Wilson, III, and P. M. Kuhn, 1964: Some preliminary results of radiation sonde ascents over India. Proceedings WMO-IUGG Symposium Tropical Meteorology, Rotorua, New Zealand, November 1963. J. W. Hutchings (Ed.), Wellington, New Zealand Meteorological Service, pp. 507–16

Büdel, J., 1957: The Ice Age in the tropics. Universitas, 1, 183–91Google Scholar

Budyko, M. I., 1958: The Heat Balance of the Earth's Surface. US Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau (translated from Russian by Nina A. Stepanova), Washington, D.C.

Budyko, M. I., 1986: The Evolution of the Biosphere. Reidel, Dordrecht

Bullard, J. E., 1997: Vegetation and dryland geomorphology. In Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process Form and Change in Drylands. D. S. G. Thomas (Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 109–31

Bullock, P., and L. H. Le Houérou, 1996: Land degradation and desertification. In Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change. R. T. Watson, M. C. Zinyowera, R. H. Ross, and D. J. Dokken (Ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 171–89

Burk, S. D., and Thompson, W. T., 1996: The summertime low-level jet and marine boundary layer structure along the California coast. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 668–862.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Butterfield, G. R., 1991: Grain transport rates in steady and unsteady turbulent airflows. Acta Mechanica, suppl., 1, 97–122CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Butterfield, G. R.1993: Sand transport response to fluctuating wind velocity. In Turbulence, Perspectives on Flow and Sediment Transport. N. J. Clifford, J. R. French, and J. Hardisty (Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 305–35

Butzer, K. W., Stuckenrath, R., Bruzewics, A. J., and Helgren, D. M., 1978: Late Cenozoic palaeoclimates of the Gaap Escarpment, Kalahari margin, South Africa. Quaternary Research, 10, 310–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cable, M., and F. Francesca, 1942: The Gobi Desert. Hodder and Stoughton, London

Cahill, A. T., and Parlange, M. B., 1998: On water vapor transport in field soils. Water Resour. Res., 34, 731–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Campbell, G. S., and G. A. Harris, 1981: Modeling soil-water-plant-atmosphere systems of deserts. In Water in Desert Ecosystems. D. D. Evans and J. L. Thames (Ed.), Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, pp. 75–91

Campbell, J. M., 1997: Few and Far Between: Moments in the North American Desert. Museum of New Mexico Press, Santa Fe

Capehart, W. J., and Carlson, T. N., 1997: Decoupling of surface and near-surface soil water content. Water Resour. Res., 33, 1383–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Carlson, T. N., and Benjamin, S. G., 1980: Radiative heating rates for Saharan dust. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 193–2132.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Carlson, T. N., and Prospero, J. M., 1972: The large-scale movement of Saharan air outbreaks over the northern equatorial Atlantic. J. Appl. Meteor., 11, 283–972.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Carlson, T. N., and Wendling, P., 1977: Reflected radiance measured by NOAA 3 VHRR as a function of optical depth for Saharan dust. J. Appl. Meteor., 16, 1368–712.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cess, R. D., and Vulis, I. L., 1989: Intercomparison and interpretation of satellite-derived directional albedos over deserts. J. Climate, 2, 393–4072.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chadwick, O. A., Derry, L. A., Vitousek, P. M., Huebert, B. J., and Hedin, L. O., 1999: Changing sources of nutrients during four million years of ecosystem development. Nature, 397, 491–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chang, J.-H., 1972: Atmospheric Circulation Systems and Climates. Oriental Publishing Company, Honolulu

Chang, J.-T., and Wetzel, P. J., 1991: Effects of spatial variations of soil moisture and vegetation on the evolution of a prestorm environment: A numerical case study. Mon. Wea. Rev., 119, 1368–902.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Changnon, S. A. Jr., and Semonin, R. G., 1979: Impact of man upon local and regional weather. Rev. Geophys. Space Physics, 17, 1891–900CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chao, S. C., 1984a: The sand deserts and the Gobis of China. In Deserts and Arid Lands. F. El Baz (Ed.), Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, pp. 95–113

Chao, S. C.1984b: Analysis of the desert terrain in China using Landsat imagery. In Deserts and Arid Lands. F. El Baz (Ed.), Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, pp. 115–32

Chapman, V. J., 1960: Salt Marshes and Salt Deserts of the World. Leonard Hill Books, London

Charlson, R. J., and J. Heintzenberg, 1995: Aerosol Forcing of Climate. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester

Charney, J., 1975: Dynamics of deserts and drought in the Sahel. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 101, 193–202CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Charney, J., Quirk, W. J., Chow, S. H., and Kornfield, J., 1977: A comparative study of the effects of albedo change on drought in semiarid regions. J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 1366–852.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Charney, J., Stone, P. H. and Quirk, W. J., 1975: Drought in the Sahara: A biogeophysical feedback mechanism. Science, 187, 434–5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chase, T. N., Pielke, R. A. Sr., Kittel, T. G. F., Baron, J. S., and Stohlgren, T. S., 1999: Potential impacts on Colorado Rocky Mountain weather due to land use changes on the adjacent Great Plains. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 16673–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chelhod, J., 1990: Islands of welcome in a sea of sand. The UNESCO Courier: A Window Open on the World, 43–2, 11–15Google Scholar

Chen, F., and Avissar, R., 1994: The impact of shallow convective moist processes on mesoscale heat fluxes. J. Appl. Meteor., 33, 1382–4012.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chen, F., and Dudhia, J., 2001: Coupling an advanced land surface – hydrology model with the Penn State – NCAR MM5 modeling system. Part II: Model implementation and sensitivity. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 569–852.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chen, F., Warner, T. T., and Manning, K., 2001: Sensitivity of orographic moist convection to landscape variability: A study of the Buffalo Creek, Colorado, flash flood case of 1996. J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 3204–232.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chen, S., Kuo, Y., Ming, W., and Ying, H., 1995: The effect of dust radiative heating on low-level frontogenesis. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 1414–202.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chen, Z., Elvidge, C. D., and Groeneveld, D. P., 1998: Monitoring seasonal dynamics of arid land vegetation using AVIRIS data. Remote Sensing Environ., 65, 255–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chepil, W. S., 1945: Dynamics of wind erosion: 1. Nature of movement of soil by wind. Soil Science, 60, 305–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chepil, W. S., and Woodruff, N. P., 1957: Sedimentary characteristics of dust storms, II. Visibility and dust concentration. Amer. J. Science, 255, 104–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Childs, C., 2000: The Secret Knowledge of Water. Sasquatch Books, Seattle

Childs, C., 2002: The Desert Cries: A Season of Flash Floods in a Dry Land. Arizona Highways Books, Phoenix

Chou, M.-D., Guoliang, J., Liou, K.-N., and Ou, S.-C. S., 1992: Calculation of surface radiation in arid regions – A case study. J. Appl. Meteor., 31, 1084–952.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chowdhury, A., Banerjee, A. K., and Gokhale, S. S., 1980: Meteorological aspects of arid and semi-arid regions of India with special reference to Thar desert. Mausam, 31, 111–18Google Scholar

Chudnovskii, A. F., 1966: Plants and light. I. Radiant energy. In Fundamentals of Agrophysics. A. F. Ioffe and I. B. Revut (Ed.), Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, pp. 1–51

Clements, T., J. F. Mann, Jr., R. O. Stone, and J. L. Eymann, 1963: A Study of Windborne Sand and Dust in Desert Areas. United States Army Natick Laboratories, Earth Sciences Division, Natick, Massachusetts, Technical Report ES-8

Clements, T., R. H. Merriam, R. O. Stone, J. L. Eymann, and H. L. Reade, 1957: A Study of Desert Surface Conditions. Headquarters, United States Army Quartermaster Research and Development Command, Environmental Protection Research Division, Natick, Massachusetts, Technical Report EP 53

Cloudsley-Thompson, J. L., 1977: Man and the Biology of Arid Zones. Edward Arnold, London

Cloudsley-Thompson, J. L., 1984: Sahara Desert. Pergamon Press, Oxford

Cloudsley-Thompson, J. L., 1993: The future of the Sahara. Environmental Conservation, 20, 335–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Coakley, J. A. Jr., and Cess, R. D., 1985: Response of the NCAR community climate model to the radiative forcing by the naturally occurring tropospheric aerosol. J. Atmos. Sci., 42, 1677–922.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cogger, H. G., and E. E. Cameron (Eds.), 1984: Arid Australia. Australian Museum, Sydney

Cole, A. E., A. Court, and A. J. Kantor, 1965: Model atmospheres. In Handbook of Geophysics and Space Environments. S. L. Valley (Ed.), McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 2.1–2.22

Conrad, G., 1969: L'évolution Continental Posthercynienne du Sahara Algerien. CNRS, Paris

Cooke, R. U., and A. Warren, 1973: Geomorphology in Deserts. University of California Press, Berkeley

Cooke, R., A. Warren, and A. Goudie, 1993: Desert Geomorphology. University College London Press, London

Cooley, R. L., G. W. Fiero, L. H. Lattman, and A. L. Mindling, 1973: Influence of Surface and Near Surface Caliche Distribution on Infiltration Characteristics and Flooding, Las Vegas Area, Nevada. Desert Research Institute, University of Nevada System, Project Report No. 21

Cornett, J. W., 1985: Atacama, Desert of Chile and Peru. Palm Springs Desert Museum, Palm Springs

Costa, J. E., 1987: Hydraulics and basin morphometry of the largest flash floods in the conterminous United States. J. Hydrology, 93, 313–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Courel, M. F., Kandel, R. S., and Rasool, S. I., 1984: Surface albedo and the Sahel drought. Nature, 307, 528–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Croke, J., 1997: Australia. In Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process Form and Change in Drylands. D. S. G. Thomas (Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 563–73

Crooks, G. A., and Cowan, G. R. C., 1993: Duststorm, South Australia, November 7th, 1988. Bull. Aust. Meteor. Oceanog. Soc., 6, 68–72Google Scholar

Cunnington, W. M., and Rowntree, P. R., 1986: Simulation of the Saharan atmosphere – dependence on moisture and albedo. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 112, 971–99Google Scholar

Darlington, D., 1996: The Mojave: A Portrait of the Definitive American Desert. Henry Holt and Company, New York

Darwin, C., 1845: An account of the fine dust which often falls on vessels in the Atlantic Ocean. Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond. 4 June 1845, pp. 26–30

Darwin, C., 1860: Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the Countries Visited During the Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle Round the World, London. 1952, Hafner Publishing Company, New York

Davis, C., Warner, T., Astling, E., and Bowers, J., 1999: Development and application of an operational, relocatable, mesogamma-scale weather analysis and forecasting system. Tellus, 51A, 710–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Martonne, E., 1927: Regions of interior basin drainage. Geographical Rev., 17, 397–414CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Martonne, E., and Aufrère, L., 1927: Map of interior basin drainage. Geographical Rev., 17, 414CrossRefGoogle Scholar

de Saint-Exupéry, A., 1939: Wind, Sand and Stars. In Airman's Odyssey. Harcourt Brace, San Diego

de Villiers, M., 2000: Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston

de Vreede, M., 1977: Deserts and Men: A Scrapbook. Government Publishing Office, The Hague

Vries, D. A., 1959: The influence of irrigation on the energy balance and the climate near the ground. J. Appl. Meteor., 16, 256–702.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Deacon, E. L., 1953: Vertical Profiles of Mean Wind in the Surface Layers of the Atmosphere. Geophysical Mem. No. 91, Meteorological Office, Air Ministry, London

Dean, W. R. S., and McDonald, I. A. W., 1994: Historical changes in stocking rates of domestic livestock as a measure of semi-arid and arid rangeland degradation in the Cape Province. J. Arid Environments, 28, 281–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Deering, D. W., Eck, T. F., and Otterman, J., 1990: Bidirectional reflectances of selected desert surfaces and their three-parameter soil characterization. Agricultural and Forest Meteor., 52, 71–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dennis, A. S., 1990: Water augmentation in arid lands through weather modification. In Human Intervention in the Climatology of Arid Lands. D. R. Haragan (Ed.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 61–99

Denton, G. H., and Karlén, W., 1973: Holocene climate variations – Their pattern and possible cause. Quaternary Research, 3, 155–205CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Depierre, D., and Gillet, H., 1971: Désertification de la zone sahélienne du Tchad. Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, 139, 2–25Google Scholar

Derbyshire, E., and A. S. Goudie, 1997: Asia. In Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process Form and Change in Drylands. D. S. G. Thomas (Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 487–506

Dey, B., 1982: Nature and possible causes of droughts in the Canadian prairies – case studies. J. Climatol., 2, 233–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Diaz de Villegas, J., A. Marin, A. Ochoa, F. Hernandez, G. Bullon, J. de Lizaury, J. Bonelli, and M. Lombardero, 1949: España en Africa. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Instituto de Estudios Africanos, Madrid

Dib, M., 1992: Le Désért Sans Detour. Sindbad, Paris

Dickinson, R. E., 1983: Land surface processes and climate – Surface albedos and energy balance. Adv. Geophys., 25, 305–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dincer, T., Al-Mugrin, A., and Zimmermann, U., 1974: Study of the infiltration and recharge through the sand dunes in arid zones with special reference to the stable isotopes and thermonuclear tritium. J. Hydrology, 23, 79–109CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dodd, A. V., and H. S. McPhilimy, 1959: Yuma Summer Microclimate. Headquarters, Quartermaster Research and Engineering Command, Environmental Protection Research Division, US Army, Natick, Massachusetts, Technical Report EP-120

Dolman, A. J., Culf, A. D., and Bessemoulin, P., 1997: Observations of boundary layer development during the HAPEX-Sahel observation period. J. Hydrology, 188–9, 998–1016CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Douglas, M. W., and Li, S., 1996: Diurnal variation of the lower-tropospheric flow over the Arizona low desert from SWAMP-1993 observations. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 1211–242.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Douglas, M. W., Maddox, R. A., Howard, K., and Reyes, S., 1993: The Mexican monsoon. J. Climate, 6, 1665–772.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Douglas, M. W., M. Peña, N. Ordinola, L. Flores, and J. Boustead, 2001: Synoptic and spatial variability of the rainfall along the northern Peruvian coast during the 1997–8 El Niño event. In Symposium on Precipitation Extremes: Prediction, Impacts and Responses, Albuquerque, New Mexico, American Meteorological Society, pp. 170–173

Doyle, J. D., 1997: The influence of mesoscale orography on a coastal jet and rainband. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 1465–882.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dregne, H. E., 1977: Desertification of arid lands. Economic Geography, 3, 322–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dregne, H. E.1983: Desertification of Arid Lands. Harwood Academic Publishers, New York

Dregne, H. E. 1985: Aridity and land degradation. Environment, 27, 16–33Google Scholar

Dregne, H. E., 1986: Desertification of arid lands. In Physics of Desertification. F. El-Baz and M. H. A. Hassan (Ed.), Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 4–34

Dregne, H. E., 1987: Reflections on the PACD. Desertification Control Bulletin, United Nations Environment Program, Special Tenth Anniversary of UNCOD Issue (November 15, 1987), pp. 8–11

Dregne, H. E., and C. J. Tucker, 1988: Desert encroachment. Desertification Control Bulletin, United Nations Environment Program, No. 16, pp. 16–19

Driese, K. L., and Reiners, W. A., 1997: Aerodynamic roughness parameters for semi-arid natural shrub communities of Wyoming, USA. Agricultural and Forest Meteor., 88, 1–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Droegemeier, K. K., and Wilhelmson, R. B., 1987: Numerical simulation of thunderstorm outflow dynamics. Part II: Outflow sensitivity experiments and turbulence dynamics. J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 1180–2102.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dubief, J., 1959: Le Climat du Sahara, Vol. 1. University of Algeria, Algiers

Dubief, J., 1963: Le Climat du Sahara, Vol. 2. University of Algeria, Algiers

Duce, R. A., 1995: Sources, distributions, and fluxes of mineral aerosols and their relationship to climate. In Aerosol Forcing of Climate. R. J. Charlson and J. Heintzenberg (Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 43–72

Duce, R. A., Liss, P. S., Merrill, J. T., and 19 others, 1991: The atmospheric input of trace species to the world ocean. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 5, 193–259CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dunkerley, D. L., and K. F. Brown, 1997: Desert soils. In Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process Form and Change in Drylands. D. S. G. Thomas (Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 55–68

Dutton, J. A., 1976: The Ceaseless Wind: An Introduction to the Theory of Atmospheric Motion. McGraw Hill, New York

Dzerdzeevskii, B. L., 1958: On some climatological problems and microclimatological studies of arid and semi-arid lands in the U.S.S.R. In Climatology and Microclimatology, Vol. 11, Proceedings Canberra Symposium, UNESCO, Paris, pp. 315–25

Eckholm, E. P., 1976: Losing Ground: Environmental Stress and World Food Prospects. W. W. Norton and Company, New York

Eddy, J. A., 1976: The Maunder Minimum. Science, 192, 1189–202CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Eddy, J. A., 1977: Climate and the changing sun. Climatic Change, 1, 173–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Edholm, O. G., 1972: The effect in man of acclimatization to heat on water intake, sweat rate and water balance. In Advances in Climatic Physiology. S. Ito, K. Ogata, and H. Yoshimura (Ed.), Shoin, Tokyo, pp. 144–55

Ek, M., and Cuenca, R. H., 1994: Variation in soil parameters: Implications for modeling surface fluxes and atmospheric boundary-layer development. Bound. Layer Meteor., 70, 369–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar

El-Baz, F., 1983: A geological perspective of the desert. In Origin and Evolution of Deserts. S. G. Wells and D. R. Haragan (Eds.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 163–83

El-Baz, F., 1986: On the reddening of quartz grains in dune sand. In Physics of Desertification. F. El-Baz and M. H. A. Hassan (Ed.), Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 191–209

El-Fandy, M. G., 1949: Dust – an active meteorological factor in the atmosphere of northern Africa. J. Appl. Phys., 20, 660–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ellis, H., 1758: An account of the heat of the weather in Georgia. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., 50, 754–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ellsaesser, H. W., MacCracken, M. C., Potter, G. L., and Luther, F. M., 1976: An additional model test of positive feedback from high desert albedo. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 102, 655–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Eltahir, E. A. B., 1996: Role of vegetation in sustaining large-scale atmospheric circulations in the tropics. J. Geophys. Res., 101, 4255–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ely, L. L., Enzel, Y., Baker, V. R., and Cayan, D. R., 1993: A 5000-year record of extreme floods and climate change in the southwestern United States. Science, 262, 410–12CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Enfield, D. B., 1981: Thermally driven wind variability in the planetary boundary layer above Lima, Peru. J. Geophys. Res., 86, 2005–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Evans, D. D., T. W. Sammis, and D. R. Cable, 1981: Actual evapotranspiration under desert conditions. In Water in Desert Ecosystems. D. D. Evans and J. L. Thames (Ed.), Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, pp. 195–218

Evans, D. D., and J. L. Thames (Eds.), 1981: Water in Desert Ecosystems. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg

Evenari, M. I., 1985a: The desert environment. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, Ecosystems of the World Volume 12A. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Eds.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, pp. 1–22

Evenari, M. I., 1985b: Adaptations of plants and animals to the desert environment. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, Ecosystems of the World Volume 12A. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Eds.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, pp. 79–92

Evenari, M., I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Eds.), 1985: Ecosystems of the World, Volume 12A: Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York

Evenari, M., I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Eds.), 1986: Ecosystems of the World, Volume 12B: Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York

Evenari, M., L. Shanan, and N. Tadmor, 1971: The Negev: The Challenge of a Desert. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts

Faus-Pujol, M. C., and A. Higueras-Arnal, 1998: Two examples of environmental transformation in dry Spain. In Population and Environment in Arid Regions, Man and the Biosphere Series, Vol. 19. J. Clarke and D. Noin (Eds.), The Parthenon Publishing Company, Pearl River, pp. 105–31

Ferrari, M., 1996: Deserts. Smithmark Publishers, New York

Findlater, J., 1966: Cross-equatorial jet streams at low levels over Kenya. Meteor. Mag., 95, 353–64Google Scholar

Findlater, J., 1967: Some further evidence of cross-equatorial jet streams at low levels over Kenya. Meteor. Mag., 96, 216–19Google Scholar

Findlater, J., 1969: A major low-level air current near the Indian Ocean during the northern summer., Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 95, 362–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fleagle, R., and J. Businger, 1963: An Introduction to Atmospheric Physics. Academic Press, New York

Flohn, H., 1964: On the causes of the aridity of northeastern Africa. Würzburger Geograph. Arb., 12, 1–17Google Scholar

Folland, C. K., T. R. Karl, and K. Y. A. Vinnikov, 1990: Observed climate variations and change. In Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment. J. T. Houghton, G. J. Jenkins, and J. J. Ephraums (Eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 195–238

Folland, C. K., Palmer, T. N., and Parker, D. E., 1986: Sahel rainfall and world-wide sea temperatures 1901–85; Observational, modelling, and simulation studies. Nature, 320, 602–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fontaine, B., and Bigot, S., 1993: West African rainfall deficits and sea surface temperatures. Intl. J. Climatol., 13, 271–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fouquart, Y., Bonnell, B., Brogniez, G., Buriez, J. C., Smith, L., Morcrette, J. J., and Cerf, A., 1987: Observations of Saharan aerosols: Results of ECLATS field experiment. II Broadband radiative characteristics of the aerosols and vertical radiative flux divergence. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 26, 38–522.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fowler, W. B., and Helvey, J. D., 1974: Effects of large-scale irrigation on climate in the Columbia Basin. Science, 184, 121–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Freeman, M. H., 1952: Duststorms of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Meteorological Report No. 11, Meteorological Office, London

Furlong, C. W., 1914: The Gateway to the Sahara. Charles Scribner and Sons, New York

Gaertner, M. A., Fernández, C., and Castro, M., 1993: A two-dimensional simulation of the Iberian summer thermal low. Mon Wea. Rev., 121, 2740–562.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gamo, M., 1996: Thickness of the dry convection and large-scale subsidence above deserts. Bound. Layer Meteor., 79, 265–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Garratt, J. R., 1992a: The Atmospheric Boundary Layer. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Garratt, J. R., 1992b: Extreme maximum land surface temperatures. J. Appl. Meteor., 31, 1096–1052.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gash, J. H. C., Kabat, P., Monteny, B. A., and 17 others, 1997: The variability of evaporation during the HAPEX-Sahel observation period. J. Hydrology, 188–9, 385–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gates, D. M., 1972: Man and His Environment: Climate. Harper and Row, New York

Gautier, E.-F., 1935: Sahara: The Great Desert. Columbia University Press, New York

Gay, L. W., and C. Bernhofer, 1991: Enhancement of evaporation by advection in arid regions. In Hydrological Interactions Between Atmosphere, Soil and Vegetation, Proceedings of the Vienna Symposium. G. Kientz et al. (Eds.), IAHS Publ. No. 204, pp. 147–56

Gehlbach, F. R., 1993: Mountain Islands and Desert Seas. Texas A&M University Press, College Station

Geiger, R., 1966: The Climate Near the Ground. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts

Gentilli, J., 1971: World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 13, Climates of Australia and New Zealand. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam

George, U., 1977: In the Deserts of This Earth. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York

Gerber, H. E., and A Deepak (Eds.), 1984: Aerosols and Their Climatic Effects. A. Deepak Publishing, Hampton

Gibbs, W. J., 1969: Meteorology and climatology. In Arid Lands of Australia. R. O. Slatyer and R. A. Perry (Ed.), Australian National University Press, Canberra, pp. 33–54

Gillette, D. A., Bolivar, D. A., and Fryrear, D. W., 1974: The influence of wind velocity on the size distributions of aerosols generated by the wind erosion of soils. J. Geophys. Res., 79C, 4068–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Glaccum, R. A., and Prospero, J. M., 1980: Saharan aerosols over the tropical North Atlantic – Mineralogy. Marine Geology, 37, 295–321CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Glantz, M. H. (Ed.), 1994: Drought Follows the Plow: Cultivating Marginal Areas. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Glantz, M. H., and N. Orlovsky, 1983: Desertification: a review of the concept. Desertification Control Bulletin, United Nations Environment Program, No. 9, pp. 15–22

Glantz, M. H., Rubinstein, A. Z., and Zonn, I., 1993: Tragedy in the Aral Sea basin. Global Environmental Change, 3, 174–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Godske, C. L., T. Bergeron, J. Bjerknes, and R. C. Bundegaard, 1957: Dynamic Meteorology and Weather Forecasting. American Meteorological Society and Carnegie Institution of Washington, Boston and Washington

Gosselin, R. E., 1969: Rates of sweating in the desert. In Physiology of Man in the Desert. E. F. Adolph (Ed.), Hafner Publishing Company, New York, pp. 44–76

Goudie, A. S., 1978: Dust storms and their geomorphological implications. J. Arid Environments, 1, 291–310Google Scholar

Goudie, A. S.1983a: Environmental Change. Clarendon Press, Oxford

Goudie, A. S., 1983b: Dust storms in space and time. Prog. Physical Geog., 7, 502–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Goudie, A. S., and Middleton, N. J., 1992: The changing frequency of dust storms through time. Climatic Change, 20, 197–225CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Goudie, A. S., and J. Wilkinson, 1977: The Warm Desert Environment. Cambridge University Press, London

Goutorbe, J. P., Lebel, T., Tinga, A., and 13 others, 1994: HAPEX-Sahel: A large-scale study of land-atmosphere interactions in the semi-arid tropics. Ann. Geophys., 12, 53–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Goutorbe, J. P., Lebel, T., Dolman, A. J., and 8 others, 1997: An overview of HAPEX-Sahel: A study in climate and desertification. J. Hydrology, 188–9, 4–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Grainger, A., 1990: The Threatening Desert. Earthscan, London

Great Plains Committee, 1936: The Future of the Great Plains. Report of the Great Plains Committeee, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., December 1936

Greco, S., R. H. Moss, D. Viner, and R. Jenne, 1994: Climate Scenarios and Socioeconomic Projections for IPCC WGII Assessment. IPCC-WMO and UNEP, Washington, D.C.

Greeley, R., and J. D. Iverson, 1985: Wind as a Geological Process on Earth, Mars, Venus and Titan. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Gribbin, J. (Ed.), 1978: Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Griffin, D. W., Garrison, V. H., Herman, J. R., and Shinn, E. A., 2001: African desert dust in the Caribbean atmosphere: Microbiology and public health. Aerobiologia, 17, 203–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Griffiths, J. F., 1966: Applied Climatology: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, London

Griffiths, J. F., 1972a: General introduction. In World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 10, Climates of Africa. J. F. Griffiths (Ed.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, pp. 1–35

Griffiths, J. F., 1972b: The Horn of Africa. In World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 10, Climates of Africa. J. F. Griffiths (Ed.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, pp. 133–65

Griffiths, J. F., 1972c: Climates of Africa. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam

Griffiths, J. F. and K. H. Soliman, 1972: The northern desert (Sahara). In World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 10, Climates of Africa. J. F. Griffiths (Ed.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, pp. 75–131

Guerzoni, S., and R. Chester (Eds.), 1996: The Impact of Desert Dust Across the Mediterranean. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht

Gupta, R. K., 1986: The Thar Desert. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, Ecosystems of the World Volume 12B. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Eds.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, pp. 55–99

Gutentag, E. D., and J. B. Weeks, 1980: Water Table in the High Plains Aquifer in 1978 in Parts of Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas and Wyoming. Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA-642, U. S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia

Hacker, J. M., 1988: The spatial distribution of the vertical energy fluxes over a desert lake area. Aust. Meteor. Mag., 36, 235–43Google Scholar

Hahn, D. G., and Manabe, S., 1975: The role of mountains in the south-Asian monsoon circulation. J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 1515–412.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hahn, D. G., and Shukla, J., 1976: An apparent relationship between Eurasian snow cover and Indian monsoon rainfall. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 2461–22.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hansen, J. E., Lacis, A. A., Lee, P., and Wang, W. -C., 1980: Climatic effects of atmospheric aerosols. Ann. New York Acad. Sci., 338, 575–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Harazono, Y., Shen, J., Liu, S., and Li, S., 1992: Micrometeorological characteristics of a sand dune in the eastern part of Inner Mongolia, China in Autumn. J. Agric. Meteor., 47, 217–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hartmann, W. K., 1989: Desert Heart: Chronicles of the Sonoran Desert. Fisher Books, Tucson

Hassan, M. A., 1990: Observations of desert flood bores. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 15, 481–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hastenrath, S., 1994: Climate Dynamics of the Tropics. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht

Hastings, J. R., and R. M. Turner, 1965: The Changing Mile. University of Arizona Press, Tucson

Hayden, J. D., 1998: The Sierra Pinacate. University of Arizona Press, Tucson

Heathcote, R. L., 1983: The Arid Lands: Their Use and Abuse. Longman, London

Hellden, U., 1988: Desertification monitoring. Desertification Control Bulletin, United Nations Environment Program, No. 17, pp. 8–12

Hellden, U., 1991: Assessing desertification. Ambio, 20, 372–83Google Scholar

Hellwig, D. H. R., 1973a: Evaporation of water from sand: 1. Experimental setup and climate influences. J. Hydrology, 18, 93–108CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hellwig, D. H. R., 1973b: Evaporation of water from sand: 2. Diurnal variations. J. Hydrology, 18, 109–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hellwig, D. H. R., 1978: Evaporation of water from sand: 6. The influence of the depth of the water table on diurnal variations. J. Hydrology, 39, 129–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Henderson, S. T., 1977: Daylight and its Spectrum. Adam Hilger, Bristol

Henderson-Sellers, A., 1981: The effects of land clearing and agricultural practices upon climate. In Blowing in the Wind: Deforestation and Long Range Implications. Studies in Third World Societies, Pub. No. 14, Dept. of Anthropology, College of William and Mary, pp. 443–85

Henning, D., and F. Flohn, 1977: Climate Aridity Index Map. United Nations Conference on Desertification, Nairobi, Kenya

Herman, J. R., Bhartia, P. K., Torres, O., Hsu, C., Seftor, C., and Celarier, E., 1997: Global distribution of UV-absorbing aerosols from Nimbus 7/TOMS data. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 16911–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hershfield, D. M., 1968: Rainfall input for hydrologic models. Intl. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol., 78, 177–88Google Scholar

Hillel, D., 1998: Environmental Soil Physics. Academic Press, San Diego

Hills, E. S. (Ed.), 1966: Arid Lands: A Geographical Appraisal. Methuen and Company, London

Hinds, B. D., and G. B. Hoidale, 1975: Boundary Layer Dust Occurrence, Vol. 2, Atmospheric Dust Over the Middle East, Near East and North Africa. Technical Report, US Army Electronics Command, White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico

Hipps, L. E., 1989: The infrared emissivities of soil and Artemisia tridentata and subsequent temperature corrections in a shrub-steppe ecosystem. Remote Sensing Environ., 27, 337–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hjalmarson, H. W., 1984: Flash flood in Tanque Verde Creek, Tucson, Arizona. J. Hydraulic Eng., ASCE, 110, 1841–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hobbs, P. V., and M. P. McCormick (Eds.), 1988: Aerosols and Climate. A. Deepak Publishing, Hampton

Hoffman, M. T., and Cowling, R. M., 1990: Desertification in the Lower Sundays River Valley, South Africa. J. Arid Environments, 19, 105–17Google Scholar

Holcombe, T. L., Ley, T., and Gillette, D. A., 1997: Effects of prior precipitation and source area characteristics on threshold wind velocities for blowing dust episodes, Sonoran Desert 1948–1978. J. Appl. Meteor., 36, 1160–752.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Holm, D. A., 1960: Desert geomorphology in the Arabian Peninsula. Science, 132, 1369–79CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Holmes, R. M., 1969: Note on low-level airborne observations of temperature near prairie oases. Mon. Wea. Rev, 97, 333–92.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Holt, T. R., 1996: Mesoscale forcing of a boundary layer jet along the California coast. J. Geophys. Res., 101, 4235–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Holton, J. R., 1992: An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology. Academic Press, San Diego

Hong, S.-Y., and Kalnay, E., 2000: Role of sea surface temperature and soil-moisture feedback in the 1998 Oklahoma-Texas drought. Nature, 408, 842–4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hong, X., Leach, M. J., and Raman, S., 1995: Role of vegetation in generation of mesoscale circulation. Atmos. Environ., 29, 2163–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hoogmoed, W. B., 1986: Analysis of rainfall characteristics relating to soil management from some selected locations in Niger and India. Wageningen Agricultural University, ICRISAT Sahelian Center Report 86–3, Wageningen, The Netherlands

Hora, S. L., 1952: The Rajputana Desert: Its value in India's national economy. Proceedings of the Symposium on the Rajputana Desert. Bull. National Institute Sci. India, 1, 1–11Google Scholar

Hoskins, B. J., H. H. Hsu, I. N. James, M. Masutani, P. D. Sardeshmukh, and G. H. White, 1989: Diagnostics of the Global Atmospheric Circulation Based on ECMWF Analyses, 1979–1989. WCRP, WMO/TD No. 326, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva

Houseman, J., 1961: Dust haze at Bahrain. Meteor. Mag., 19, 50–2Google Scholar

Hovis, W. A. Jr., 1966: Infrared spectral reflectance of some common minerals. Appl. Optics, 5, 245–8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Howe, G. H., L. J. Reed, J. T. Ball, G. E. Fisher, and G. B. Lassow, 1968: Classification of World Desert Areas. United States Army Natick Laboratories, Materiel Command, Technical Report 69-38-ES, Natick, Massachusetts

Hulme, M., and Kelly, M., 1993: Exploring the links between desertification and climate change. Environment, 35, 4–19Google Scholar

Humes, K. S., Kustas, W. P., and Goodrich, D. C., 1997: Spatially distributed sensible heat flux over a semiarid watershed. Part II: Use of radiometric surface temperatures and a spatially uniform resistance. J. Appl. Meteor., 36, 281–922.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Humes, K. S., Kustas, W. P., Moran, M. S., Nichols, W. D., and Weltz, M. A., 1994: Variability of emissivity and surface temperature over a sparsely vegetated surface. Water Resour. Res., 30, 1299–310CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hunt, C. B., 1983: Physiographic overview of our arid lands in the western U. S. In Origin and Evolution of Deserts. S. G. Wells and D. R. Haragan (Eds.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 7–63

Husar, R. B., Prospero, J. M., and Stowe, L. L., 1997: Characterization of tropospheric aerosols over the oceans with the NOAA advanced very high resolution radiometer optical thickness operational product. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 16889–909CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Idso, S. B., 1976: Dust storms. Scientific American, 235, 108–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Idso, S. B., 1977: A note on some recently proposed mechanisms of genesis of deserts, Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 103, 369–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Idso, S. B., and Deardorff, J. W., 1978: Comments on “The effect of variable surface albedo on atmospheric circulation in desert regions” (Berkofsky, L., 1976). J. Appl. Meteor., 17, 5602.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ingram, D. L., and L. E. Mount, 1975: Man and Animals in Hot Environments. Springer-Verlag, New York

Issar, A. S., and S. D. Resnick (Eds.), 1996: Runoff, Infiltration and Subsurface Flow of Water in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht

Ives, R. L., 1962: Kiss tanks. Weather, 17, 194–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jackson, R. D., and Idso, S. B., 1975: Surface albedo and desertification. Science, 189, 1012–13CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Jaeger, E. C., 1957: The North American Deserts. Stanford University Press, Stanford

Jahns, R. H., 1949: Desert floods. Engineering and Science (California Institute of Technology, Alumni Association), 12, 10–14Google Scholar

Joseph, J. H., 1984: The sensitivity of a numerical model of the global atmosphere to the presence of desert aerosol. In Aerosols and Their Climatic Effects. H. E. Gerber and A. Deepak (Eds.), A. Deepak Publishing, Hampton, pp. 215–26

Joshi, P. C., and Desai, P. S., 1985: The satellite-determined thermal structure of heat lows during Indian south-west monsoon season. Adv. Space Res., 5, 57–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Junning, L., Q. Zhengan, and S. Fumin, 1986: An investigation of the summer lows over the Qinghai-Xizang plateau. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau and Mountain Meteorology. 20–24 March 1984, Beijing, American Meteorological Society, Boston, pp. 369–86

Jury, W. A., W. R. Gardner, and W. H. Gardner, 1991: Soil Physics. John Wiley and Sons, New York

Jury, W. A., J. Letey Jr., and L. H. Stolzy, 1981: Flow of water and energy under desert conditions. In Water in Desert Ecosystems. D. D. Evans and J. L. Thames (Eds.), Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, pp. 92–113

Justice, C. O., and Hiernaux, P. H. Y., 1986: Monitoring the grasslands of the Sahel using NOAA AVHRR data: Niger 1983. Int. J. Remote Sensing, 7, 1475–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kahana, R., Ziv, B., Enzel, Y., and Dayan, U., 2002: Synoptic climatology of major floods in the Negev Desert, Israel. Intl. J. Climatol., 22, 867–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kamra, A. K., 1969: Electrification in an Indian dust storm. Weather, 24, 145–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kamra, A. K., 1972: Measurements of the electrical properties of dust storms. J. Geophys. Res., 77, 5856–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Karyampudi, V. M., and Carlson, T. N., 1988: Analysis and numerical simulations of the Saharan air layer and its effects on easterly wave disturbances. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 3102–362.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Karyampudi, V. M., Palm, S. P., Reagan, J. A., Fang, H., Grant, W. B., Hoff, R. M., Moulin, C., Pierce, H. F., Torres, O., Browell, E. V., and Melfi, S. H., 1999: Validation of the Saharan dust plume conceptual model using lidar, Meteosat, and ECMWF data. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 1045–752.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Karyampudi, V. M., J. Simpson, S. Palm, and H. Pierce, 1997: Lidar observations of Saharan dust layer and its influence on tropical cyclogenesis. In Preprints, 22nd Conf. on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology, Fort Collins, American Meteorological Society, pp. 59–60

Katsoulis, B. D., and Tsangaris, J. M., 1994: The state of the Greek environment in recent years. Ambio, 23, 274–9Google Scholar

Katz, R. W., and M. H. Glantz, 1977: Rainfall statistics, droughts, and desertification in the Sahel. In Desertification: Environmental Degradation in and Around Arid Lands, M. H. Glantz (Ed.), Westview Press, Boulder, pp. 81–102

Kellogg, W. W., 1978: Global influences of mankind on the climate. In Climate Change, J. Gribbin (Ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 205–27

Kellogg, W. W., 1979: Trends in anthropogenic aerosols and their effects on climate. Papers presented at the WMO Technical Conference on Regional and Global Observations of Atmospheric Pollution Relative to Climate, Boulder, 20–24 August. WMO – No. 549, WMO, Geneva, pp. 125–32

Kellogg, W. W., and S. H. Schneider, 1977: Climate, desertification, and human activities. In Desertification: Environmental Degradation in and Around Arid Lands. M. H. Glantz (Ed.), Westview Press, Boulder, pp. 141–63

Kershaw, A. P., 1978: Record of last interglacial-glacial cycle from northeastern Queensland. Nature, 272, 159–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kerslake, D. McK., 1972: The Stress of Hot Environments. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Khalaf, F. I., and Al-Hashash, M. K., 1983: Aeolian sedimentation in the northwest part of the Arabian Gulf. J. Arid Environ., 6, 319–32Google Scholar

Kidron, G. J., 2000: Analysis of dew precipitation in three habitats within a small drainage basin, Negev Highlands, Israel. Atmos. Res., 55, 257–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kidron, G. J., Yair, A., and Danin, A., 2000: Dew variability within a small arid drainage basin in the Negev Highlands, Israel. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 126, 63–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kiefert, L., G. H. McTainsh, and W. G. Nickling, 1996: Sedimentological characteristics of Saharan and Australian dusts. In The Impact of Desert Dust Across the Mediterranean. S. Guerzoni and R. Chester (Ed.), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 183–90

Kiehl, J. T., and Trenberth, K. E., 1997: Earth's annual global mean energy budget. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 78, 197–2082.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kimura, F., and Kuwagata, T., 1995: Horizontal heat fluxes over complex terrain computed using a simple mixed-layer model and a numerical model. J. Appl. Meteor., 34, 549–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kironchi, G., Kinyali, S. M., and Mbuvi, J. P., 1992: Effect of soils, vegetation and landuse on infiltration in a tropical semi-arid catchment. E. Afr. Agric. For. J., 57, 177–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Knighton, D., and G. Nanson, 1997: Distinctiveness, diversity and uniqueness in arid zone river systems. In Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process Form and Change in Drylands. D. S. G. Thomas (Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 185–203

Kondratyev, K. Ya., V. I. Korzov, V. V. Mukhenberg, and L. N. Dyachenko, 1981: The shortwave albedo and the surface emissivity. In Study Conference on Land Surface Processes in Atmospheric General Circulation Models. Greenbelt, 5–10 January 1981, pp. 463–514

Köppen, W., 1931: Grundriss der Klimakunde. Walter de Gruyter Company, Berlin

Krusel, N., 1987: Surface temperature – A case study at The Salt Lake, New South Wales. Thesis, Monash University

Krutch, J. W., 1951: The Desert Year. University of Arizona Press, Tucson

Krutch, J. W., 1956: The Voice of the Desert. William Sloane, New York

Kuo, L. T. C., 1976: Agriculture in the People's Republic of China. Praeger Publishers, New York

Kustas, W. P., and Humes, K. S., 1997: Spatially distributed sensible heat flux over a semiarid watershed. Part II: Use of a variable resistance approach with radiometric surface temperatures. J. Appl. Meteor., 36, 293–3012.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kuwagata, T., and Kimura, F., 1995: Daytime boundary layer evolution in a deep valley. Part II: Observations in the Ina Valley. J. Appl. Meteor., 34, 1082–912.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Labed, J., and Stoll, M. P., 1991: Spatial variability of land surface emissivity in the thermal infrared band: Spectral signature and effective surface temperature. Remote Sensing Environ., 38, 1–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lahey, J. F., 1973: On the origin of the dry climate in northern South America and the southern Caribbean. In Coastal Deserts: Their Natural and Human Environments. D. H. K. Amiran and A. W. Wilson (Ed.), University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 75–90

Lakhtakia, M. N., and Warner, T. T., 1987: A real-data numerical study of the development of the precipitation along the edge of an elevated mixed layer. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 156–682.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lamb, H. H., 1972: Climate: Present, Past, and Future, Vol. 1, Fundamentals and Climate Now. Methuen and Company, London

Lamb, H. H., 1977: Climate: Present, Past, and Future, Vol. 2, Climatic History and the Future. Methuen and Company, London

Lamb, P. J., 1978a: Case studies of tropical Atlantic surface circulation patterns during recent sub-Saharan weather anomalies: 1967 and 1968. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 482–912.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lamb, P. J., 1978b: Large-scale tropical Atlantic surface circulation patterns associated with Sub-Saharan weather anomalies. Tellus, 30, 240–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lamprey, H., 1988: Report on the desert encroachment reconnaissance in northern Sudan: 21 October to 10 November 1975. Desertification Control Bulletin, United Nations Environment Program, No. 17, pp. 1–7

Lancaster, N., 1995: The Geomorphology of Desert Dunes. Routledge, London

Landsberg, H. E., 1951: Statistical investigation into the climatology of rainfall in Oahu. In On the Rainfall of Hawaii: A Group of Contributions. Meteorological Monograph, American Meteorological Society, Boston, pp. 7–23

Landsberg, H. E., 1970: Man-made climate changes. Science, 197, 1265–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lane, B. C., 1998: The Solace of Fierce Landscapes: Exploring Desert and Mountain Spirituality. Oxford University Press, New York

Lang, A. R. G., Evans, G. N., and Ho, P. Y., 1974: The influence of local advection on evapotranspiration from irrigated rice in a semi-arid region. Agricultural Meteor., 13, 5–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Langbein, W. B., and Schumm, S. A., 1958: Yield of sediment in relation to mean annual precipitation. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 39, 1076–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lare, A. R., and Nicholson, S. E., 1994: Contrasting conditions of surface water balance in wet years and dry years as a possible land surface – atmosphere feedback mechanism in the West African Sahel. J. Climate, 7, 653–682.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lashof, D. A., DeAngelo, B. J., Saleska, S. R., and Harte, J., 1997: Terrestrial ecosystem feedbacks to global climate change. Ann. Rev. Energy Environ., 22, 75–118CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lattman, L. H., 1983: Effects of caliche on desert processes. In Origin and Evolution of Deserts. S. G. Wells and D. R. Haragan (Eds.), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 101–9

Laval, K., and Picon, L., 1986: Effect of a change of the surface albedo of the Sahel on climate. J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 2418–292.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lawrence, T. E., 1926: Seven Pillars of Wisdom. Doubleday, Garden City

Laymon, C., and D. Quattrochi, 2003: Estimating spatially-distributed surface fluxes in a semi-arid Great-Basin Desert using Landsat TM data. In Thermal Remote Sensing in Land Surface Processes. D. Quattrochi and J. Luvall (Ed.), Taylor and Francis, London. (In press.)

Le Clézio, J. M. G., 1980: Désert. Gallimard Publishers, Paris

Houérou, H. N., 1968: La désertisation du Sahara septentrional et des steppes limitrophes. Ann. Algér. de Géogr., 6, 2–27Google Scholar

Houérou, H. N., 1976: The nature and causes of desertification. Arid Zone Newsletter, Office of Arid Land Studies, Tucson, Arizona, 3, 1–7Google Scholar

Houérou, H. N., 1979: La désertisation des régions arides. La Recherche, 99, 336–44Google Scholar

Le Houérou, H. N., 1986: The desert and arid zone of northern Africa. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, Ecosystems of the World Volume 12B. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Eds.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, pp. 101–47

Le Houérou, H. N., 1992: An overview of vegetation and land degradation in the world arid lands. In Degradation and Restoration of Arid Lands. H. E. Dregne (Ed.), International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Lands Studies, Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock, Texas, pp. 127–63

Le Houérou, H. N., G. F. Popov, and L. See, 1993: Agrobioclimatic Classification of Africa. Agrometeorology Series, Working Paper no. 6, FAO, Rome, Italy

Le Roy Ladurie, E., 1967: Histoire du Climat depuis l'an mil. Flammarion, Paris. (Translated by B. Bray, Doubleday and Company, 1971.)

Leathers, C. R., 1981: Plant components of desert dust in Arizona and their significance for man. In Desert Dust. T. L. Péwé (Ed.), Geological Society of America, Special Paper 186, pp. 191–206

Lee, B. E., and Soliman, B. F., 1977: An investigation of the forces on three dimensional bluff bodies in rough wall turbulent boundary layers. Trans. ASME, J. Fluids Eng., 99, 503–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lee, D. H. K., 1964: Terrestrial animals in dry heat: Man in the desert. In Handbook of Physiology – Environment. D. B. Hill, E. F. Adolph, and C. G. Wilber (Ed.), American Physiological Society, Washington, D.C., pp. 551–82

Lee, D. H. K., 1968: Human adaptation to arid environments. In Desert Biology. G. W. Brown Jr. (Ed.), Academic Press, New York, pp. 517–56

Lee, J. A., 1991a: The role of desert shrub size and spacing on wind profile parameters. Phys. Geogr., 12, 72–89Google Scholar

Lee, J. A., 1991b: Near-surface wind flow around desert shrubs. Phys. Geogr., 12, 140–6Google Scholar

Lee, R., 1978: Forest Microclimatology. Columbia University Press, New York

Leighton, R., and R. Deslandes, 1991: Monthly anticyclonicity and cyclonicity in the Australian region: 23-year averages. Technical Report No. 64, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia

Leithead, C. S., and A. R. Lind, 1964: Heat Stress and Heat Disorders. Cassell, London

Leslie, L. M., 1980: Numerical modeling of the summer heat low over Australia. J. Appl. Meteor., 19, 381–72.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lettau, H. H., 1978a: Introduction. In Exploring the World's Driest Climate. H. H. Lettau and K. Lettau (Ed.), IES Rep. 101, Univ of Wisconsin, Madison, pp. 12–29

Lettau, H. H., 1978b: Explaining the world's driest climate. In Exploring the World's Driest Climate. H. H. Lettau and K. Lettau (Ed.), IES Rep. 101, Univ of Wisconsin, Madison, pp. 182–248

Lewis, H. E., Foster, A. R., Mullan, B. J., Cox, R. N., and Clark, R. P., 1969: Aerodynamics of the human microenvironment. The Lancet, 1 (7609), 1273–7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lieman, R., and P. Alpert, 1992: Investigation of the temporal and spatial variations of PBL height over Israel. In Air Pollution Modeling and its Application, IX. G. Kallos (Ed.), Plenum, pp. 231–9

Lindesay, J. A., and Tyson, P. D., 1990: Thermo-topographically induced boundary layer oscillations over the central Namib, Southern Africa. Intl. J. Climatol., 10, 63–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lines, G. C., 1979: Hydrology and Surface Morphology of the Bonneville Salt Flats and the Pilot Valley Playa, Utah. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2057, US Government Printing Office

List, R. J., 1966: Smithsonian Meteorological Tables. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.

Littmann, T., 1991: Dust storm frequency in Asia: climatic control and variability. Intl. J. Climatol., 11, 393–412CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Logan, R. F., 1960: The Central Namib Desert. National Research Council Publication 785, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.

Logan, R. F., 1968: Causes, climates and distribution of deserts. In Desert Biology, Vol. 1. G. W. Brown Jr. (Ed.), Academic Press, New York, pp. 21–50

Longley, R. W., 1975: Precipitation in valleys. Weather, 30, 294–300CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lopez-Bermudez, , Romero-Diaz, F., A., Fisher, G., Francis, C., and Thornes, J. B., 1984: Erosion y ecologia en la Espana semi-arida (Cuenca de Mula, Murcia). Cuadernos de Investig. Geofra, 10, 113–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lorca, F. G., 2002: Selected Verse. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York

Lorenz, E. N., 1968: Climate determinism. In Causes of Climatic Change. J. M. Mitchell (Ed.), Meteorological Monograph 8, American Meteorological Society, Boston, pp. 1–3

Lowdermilk, W. C., 1953: Conquest of the Land Through 7000 Years. US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 99

Lusigi, W., 1981: Combatting Desertification and Rehabilitating Degraded Production Systems in Northern Kenya. IPAL Technical Report A-4, MAB Project No. 3, Impact of Human Activities and Land-Use Practices on Grazing Lands, UNESCO, Nairobi, Kenya

Lydolph, P. E., 1964: The Russian sukovey. Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geographs, 54, 291–309CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lydolph, P. E., 1973: On the causes of aridity along a selected group of coasts. In Coastal Deserts: Their Natural and Human Environments. D. H. K. Amiran and A. W. Wilson (Ed.), University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 67–72

Lydolph, P. E.1977: Climates of the Soviet Union. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam

Lyford, F. P., and Qashu, H. K., 1969: Infiltration rates as affected by desert vegetation. Water Resour. Res., 5, 1373–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mabbutt, J. A., 1977: Desert Landforms. ANU Press, Canberra

Mabbutt, J. A., 1978a: The impact of desertification as revealed by mapping. Environmental Conservation, 5, 45CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mabbutt, J. A., 1978b: Desertification in Australia. Water Research Foundation of Australia, Report No. 4, Canberra, Australia

Mabbutt, J. A., 1984: A new global assessment of the status and trends of desertification. Environmental Conservation, 11, 100–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar

MacMahon, J. A., 1985: Deserts. Alfred A. Knopf, New York

MacMahon, J. A., and F. H. Wagner, 1985: The Mojave, Sonoran and Chihuahuan Deserts of North America. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, Ecosystems of the World Volume 12A. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Eds.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, pp. 105–202

Mainguet, M., 1991: Desertification: Natural Background and Human Mismanagement. Springer-Verlag, Berlin

Malek, E., and Bingham, G. E., 1997: Partitioning of radiation and energy balance components in an inhomogeneous desert valley. J. Arid Environments, 37, 193–207CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Malek, E., Bingham, G. E., and McCurdy, G. D., 1990: Evapotranspiration from the margin and moist playa of a closed desert valley. J. Hydrology, 120, 15–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Malek, E., Bingham, G. E., Orr, D., and McCurdy, G. D., 1997: Annual mesoscale study of water balance in a Great Basin heterogeneous desert valley. J. Hydrology, 191, 223–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Maley, J., 1982: Dust, clouds, rain types, and climatic variations in tropical North Africa. Quaternary Research, 18, 1–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Man, J., 1999: Gobi: Tracking the Desert. Yale University Press, New Haven

Manabe, S., and Broccoli, A. J., 1990: Mountains and arid climates of middle latitudes. Science, 247, 192–5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Mares, M. A. (Ed.), 1999: Encyclopedia of Deserts. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman

Mares, M. A., J. Morello, and G. Goldstein, 1985: The Monte Desert and other subtropical semi-arid biomes of Argentina, with comments on their relation to North American arid areas. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, Ecosystems of the World Volume 12A. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Ed.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, pp. 203–37

Marshall, J. K., 1970: Assessing the protective role of shrub-dominated rangeland vegetation against soil erosion by wind. Proceedings, 11th International Grasslands Conference, Surfer's Paradise, Queensland, Australia Grassland Society of Victoria, Parkville, pp. 19–23

Marston, R. A., 1986: Maneuver-caused wind erosion impacts, South Central New Mexico. In Aeolian Geomorphology. W. G. Nickling (Ed.), Allen and Unwin, Boston, pp. 273–90

Marticorena, B., Bergametti, G., Gillette, D., and Belnap, J., 1997: Factors controlling threshold friction velocity in semiarid and arid areas of the United States. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 23277–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mather, G. K., Terblanche, D. E., Steffens, F. E., and Fletcher, L., 1997: Results of the South African cloud seeding experiments using hygroscopic flares. J. Appl. Meteor., 36, 1433–472.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

McCurdy, G. G., 1989: Radiation balance of a desert salt playa. M.S. Thesis, Utah State University, Logan

McGinnies, W. G., B. J. Goldman, and P. Paylore (Eds.), 1968: Introduction to Deserts of the World: An Appraisal of Research Into Their Physical and Biological Environments. University of Arizona Press, Tucson

McIntyre, D. S., 1958: Permeability measurements of soil crusts formed by raindrop impact. Soil Sci., 85, 185–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

McKee, E. D. (Ed.), 1979: A Study of Global Sand Seas. United States Geological Survey Paper 1052, Washington, D.C.

McKee, E. D., C. S. Breed, and S. G. Fryberger, 1977: Desert sand seas. In Skylab Explores the Earth. NASA SP-380, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C., pp. 5–47

McKenna-Neumann, C., and Nickling, W. G., 1994: Momentum extraction with saltation: implications for experimental evaluation of wind profile parameters. Bound. Layer Meteor., 68, 35–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar

McNamee, G. (Ed.), 1995: The Sierra Club Desert Reader: A Literary Companion. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco

Medinger, M., 1961: La crue de décembre 1960 de l'Oued Mya. Inst. de Rech. Sahariennes, Travaux, 20, 203–6Google Scholar

Meehl, G. A., Branstator, G. W., and Washington, W. M., 1993: Tropical Pacific interannual variability and CO2 climate change. J. Climate, 6, 42–632.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Meigs, P., 1952: Arid and semiarid climate types of the world. In Proceedings, Eighth General Assembly and Seventeenth International Congress, International Geographical Union, Washington, D.C., pp. 135–8

Meigs, P., 1953: World distribution of arid and semi-arid homoclimates. In Reviews of Research on Arid Zone Hydrology. UNESCO, Paris, Arid Zone Programme 1, pp. 203–10

Meigs, P., 1957: Arid and semi-arid climate types of the world. In Proceedings, International Geographical Union, 17th Congress, 8th General Assembly, Washington, D.C., pp. 135–8

Meigs, P., 1966: Geography of Coastal Deserts. UNESCO, Paris, Arid Zone Research XXVIII

Meinel, A., and M. Meinel, 1983: Sunsets, Twilights, and Evening Skies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Membery, D. A., 1985: A gravity wave haboob. Weather, 40, 214–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Membery, D. A., 1997: Unusually wet weather across Arabia. Weather, 52, 166–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Menenti, M., 1984: Physical aspects and determination of evaporation in deserts applying remote sensing techniques. Dissertation, Netherlands Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands

Menenti, M., and Ritchie, J. C., 1994: Estimation of effective aerodynamic roughness of Walnut Gulch watershed with laser altimeter measurements. Water Resour. Res., 30, 1329–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Middleton, N., 1986: The geography of dust storms. Dissertation, University of Oxford

Middleton, N., 1997: Desert dust. In Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process Form and Change in Drylands. D. S. G. Thomas (Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 413–36

Middleton, N. J., A. S. Goudie, and G. L. Wells, 1986: The frequency and source areas of dust storms. In Aeolian Geomorphology. W. G. Nickling (Ed.), Allen and Unwin, Boston, pp. 237–59

Mikesell, M. W., 1960: Deforestation in northern Morocco. Science, 132, 441–54CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Mikesell, M. W., 1969: The deforestation of Mount Lebanon. Geographical Rev., 59, 1–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Milford, J. R., 1987: Problems of deducing the soil water balance in dryland regions from Meteosat data. Soil Use and Management, 3, 51–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Miller, A. A., 1961: Climatology. Methuen, London

Miller, D. H., 1981: Energy at the Surface of the Earth: An Introduction to the Energetics of Ecosystems. Academic Press, New York

Miller, H., 1945: The Air-conditioned Nightmare. New Directions Books, New York

Miller, R. L., and Tegen, I., 1998: Climate response to soil dust aerosols. J. Climate, 11, 3247–672.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mitchell, J. F. B., 1989: The “greenhouse” effect and climate change. Rev. Geophys., 27, 115–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mohalfi, S., Bedi, H. S., Krishnamurti, T. N., and Cocke, S. D., 1998: Impact of shortwave radiative effects of dust aerosols on the summer season heat low over Saudi Arabia. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 3153–682.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Monod, T., 1973: Les Déserts. Horizons de France, Paris

Monod, T., 1986: The Sahel zone north of the Equator. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, Ecosystems of the World Volume 12B. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Eds.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, pp. 203–43

Monod, T., 1994: Deserts. The UNESCO Courier: A Window Open on the World, 47–1, 4–9Google Scholar

Monteith, J. L., 1963: Dew: facts and fallacies. In The Water Relations of Plants. A. J. Rutter and F. H. Whitehead (Ed.), Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, pp. 37–56

Monteith, J. L., and L. E. Mount (Eds.), 1974: Heat Loss From Animals and Man: Assessment and Control. Butterworths, London

Monteith, J. L. and M. H. Unsworth, 1990: Principles of Environmental Physics. Edward Arnold, London

Mooney, H. A., Gulmon, S. I., Rundel, P. W., and Ehleringer, J., 1980: Further observations on the water relations of Prosopis tamarugo of the Northern Atacama desert. Oecologia, 44, 177–80CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Moore, J. K., Doney, S. C., Glower, D. M., and Fung, I. Y., 2001: Iron cycling and nutrient limitation patterns in surface waters of the world ocean. Deep-Sea Research II, 49, 463–507CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Moore, R. M., and R. A. Perry, 1970: Vegetation of Australia. In Australian Grasslands. R. M. Moore (Ed.), Australian National University Press, Canberra, pp. 59–73

Morales, A. F., 1946: El Sahara Español. Alta Comisaria de España en Marruecos, Madrid

Moriarty, W. W., 1955: Large-scale effects of heating over Australia. I. The synoptic behavior of the summer low. Technical Report No. 7, Div. Meteorol. Phys., CSIRO, Australia

Morrison, R., 1964: Lake Lahontan: Geology of Southern Carson Desert, Nevada. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 401

Mossman, R. C., 1910: The climate of Chile. J. Scottish Meteor. Soc., 15, 313–46Google Scholar

Motts, W. S., 1965: Hydrologic types of playas and closed valleys and some relations of hydrology to playa geology. In Geology, Mineralogy and Hydrology of U. S. Playas. J. T. Neal (Ed.), Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories Report 65–226, Environmental Research Paper 96, Bedford, Massachusetts, pp. 31–72

Motts, W. S. (Ed.), 1970: Geology and Hydrology of Selected Playas in Western United States. University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Moulin, C., Lambert, C. E., Dulac, F., and Dayan, U., 1997: Control of atmospheric export of dust from North Africa by the North Atlantic oscillation. Nature, 387, 691–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mount, L. E., 1974: The concept of thermal neutrality. In Heat Loss From Animals and Man. J. L. Monteith and L. E. Mount (Ed.), Butterworth, London, pp. 425–39

Muturi, H. R., 1994: Temperature and Rainfall Trends in Kenya During the Last 50 Years. Department of Research and Development; Ministry of Research, Technology and Training, Nairobi, Kenya

Nagel, J. F., 1962: Fog precipitation measurements of Africa's southwest coast. South Africa Weather Bureau, Notos 11, 51–60Google Scholar

Namias, J., 1989: Cold waters and hot summers. Nature, 338, 15–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Namias, J., 1991: Spring and summer 1988 drought over the contiguous United States – Causes and prediction. J. Climate, 4, 54–652.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Neal, J. T. (Ed.), 1965: Geology, Mineralogy and Hydrology of U.S. Playas. Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories Report 65-226, Environmental Research Paper 96, Bedford, Massachusetts

Neal, J. T. (Ed.), 1975: Playas and Dried Lakes. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross; Stroudsburg

Neihardt, J. G., 1925: The Twilight of the Sioux. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln

Neruda, P., 1974: Confieso que he Vivido: Memorias. Editorial Seix Barral, Barcelona

Neuberger, H., 1966: Introduction to Physical Meteorology. The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park

Neuberger, H., and J. Cahir, 1969: Principles of Climatology. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York

New, M. G., Hulme, M., and Jones, P. D., 2000: Representing 20th century space-time climate variability. II: Development of 1901–1996 monthly terrestrial climate fields. J. Climate, 13 2217–382.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Nicholson, S. E., 1989a: Long term changes in African rainfall. Weather, 44, 46–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Nicholson, S. E., 1989b: African drought: characteristics, causal theories, and global teleconnections. In Understanding Climate Change. A. Berger, R. E. Dickinson, and J. W. Kidson (Ed.), American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C., pp. 79–100

Nicholson, S. E., and Farrar, T. J., 1994: The influence of soil type on the relationships between NDVI, rainfall, and soil moisture in semiarid Botswana. I. NDVI response to rainfall. Remote Sensing Environ., 50, 107–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Nicholson, S. E., and Flohn, H., 1980: African environmental and climatic changes and the general atmospheric circulation in Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Climatic Change, 2, 331–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Nickling, W. G. (Ed.), 1986: Aeolian Geomorphology. Allen and Unwin, Boston

Nickling, W. G., and Wolfe, S. A., 1994: The morphology and origin of Nabkhas, region of Mopti, Mali, West Africa. J. Arid Environments, 28, 13–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Nir, D., 1974: The Semi Arid World: Man on the Fringe of the Desert. Longman, London

Niu, G. -Y., Sun, S. -F., and Hong, Z. -X, 1997: Water and heat transport in the desert soil and atmospheric boundary layer in western China. Bound. Layer Meteor., 85, 179–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar

NOAA, 1983: Climatic Atlas of the United States. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D.C.

Novak, M. D., 1986: Theoretical values of daily atmospheric and soil thermal admittances. Bound. Layer Meteor., 34, 17–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Novak, M. D., and Black, T. A., 1985: Theoretical determination of the surface energy balance and thermal regime of bare soils. Bound. Layer Meteor., 33, 313–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Noy-Meir, I., 1985: Desert ecosystem structure and function. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, Ecosystems of the World Volume 12A. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Eds.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, pp. 93–103

NSF, 1977: The land of the empty bucket. In The Study of Aridity: A Mosaic Special. MOSAIC, 8 (1), National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C., pp. 2–5

O'Carroll, C. M., and Carlyon, M., 2001: Dust from Africa leads to large toxic algae blooms in Gulf of Mexico, study finds. The Earth Observer, 13 (No. 4), 18Google Scholar

Odingo, R. S., 1990: Review of UNEP's definition of desertification and its programmatic implications. In Desertification Revisited. UNEP, Nairobi, pp. 7–44

Oglesby, R. J., and Erickson, D. J. III, 1989: Soil moisture and the persistence of North American drought. J. Climate, 2, 1362–802.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Oke, T. R., 1987: Boundary Layer Climates. Methuen, London

Oldeman, L. R., R. T. A. Hakkeling, and W. G. Sombroek, 1990: World map of Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation: An Explanatory Note. UNEP, Nairobi, and ISRIC, Wageningen

Oliver, F. W., 1945: Dust storms in Egypt and their relation to the war period, as noted in Maryut, 1939–1945. Geographical J., 106, 26–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ookouchi, Y., Segal, M., Kessler, R. C. and Pielke, R. A., 1984: Evaluation of soil moisture effects on the generation and modification of mesoscale circulations. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 2281–922.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Orshan, G., 1986: The deserts of the Middle East. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, Ecosystems of the World Volume 12B. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Ed.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, pp. 1–28

Otterman, J., 1974: Baring high-albedo soils by overgrazing: A hypothesized desertification mechanism. Science, 186, 531–3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Otterman, J.1977a: Anthropogenic impact on surface characteristics and some possible climatic consequences. Israel Meteorological Research Papers, Israel Meteor. Serv., Bet Dagen, pp. 31–41

Otterman, J., 1977b: Monitoring surface albedo change with LANDSAT. Geophys. Res. Lett., 4, 441–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Otterman, J., 1981: Satellite and field studies of man's impact on the surface of arid regions. Tellus, 33, 68–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Otterman, J., 1989: Enhancement of surface-atmosphere fluxes by desert-fringe vegetation through reduction of surface albedo and of soil heat flux. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 40, 67–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Otterman, J., and Fraser, R. S., 1976: Earth-atmosphere system and surface reflectivities in arid regions from LANDSAT MSS data. Remote Sensing Environ., 5, 247–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Otterman, J., Novak, M. D., and Starr, D. O'C., 1993: Turbulent heat transfer from sparsely vegetated surface: Two-component representation. Bound. Layer Meteor., 64, 409–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Otterman, J., and Sharon, D., 1979: Day/night partitioning of rain in an arid region: Computational approaches, results for the Negev and meteorological/climatological implications. J. Recherches Atmosphériques, 13, 11–20Google Scholar

Otterman, J., and Starr, D. O'C., 1995: Alternative regimes of surface and climate conditions in sandy arid regions: possible relevance to Mesopotamian drought 2200–1900 B. C.J. Arid Environments, 31, 127–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Overpeck, J., Rind, D., Lacis, A., and Healy, R., 1996: Possible role of dust-induced regional warming in abrupt climate change during the last glacial period. Nature, 384, 447–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Owens, M., and D. Owens, 1984: Cry of the Kalahari. Houghton Mifflin, Boston

Pabot, H., 1962: Comment Briser le Cercle Vicieux de la Désertification dans les Régions Sèches de l'Orient. FAO, Rome

Pachur, H. J., Roper, H. P., Kropelin, S., and Groschin, M., 1987: Late Quaternary hydrography of the Eastern Sahara. Berliner Geowissenschaften Abhandlungen (A), 75, 331–84Google Scholar

Paegle, J., Nogues-Paegle, J., and Mo, K. C., 1996: Dependence of simulated precipitation on surface evaporation during the 1993 United States summer floods. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 345–612.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Palmen, E., and C. W. Newton, 1969: Atmospheric Circulation Systems. Academic Press, New York

Palmer, T. N., and Brancovic, C., 1989: The 1988 US drought linked to anomalous sea surface temperature. Nature, 338, 54–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Paltridge, G. W., and C. M. R. Platt, 1976: Radiative Processes in Meteorology and Climatology. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York

Parungo, F., Li, Z., Li, X., Yang, D., and Harris, J., 1994: Gobi dust storms and the Great Green Wall. Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 999–1002CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Pedgley, D. E., 1972: Desert depressions over north-east Africa. Meteor. Mag., 101, 228–44Google Scholar

Pedgley, D. E., 1974: Winter and spring weather at Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Meteor. Mag., 103, 225–36Google Scholar

Peel, R. F., 1974: Insolation and weathering: Some measures of diurnal temperature changes in exposed rocks in the Tibesti region, central Sahara. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, suppl., 21, 19–28Google Scholar

Peel, R. F., 1975: Water action in desert landscapes. In Processes in Physical and Human Geography. R. F. Peel, M. Chisolm, and P. Haggett (Ed.), Heinemann Educational Books, London, pp. 110–29

Perrolf, K., and Sandstrom, K., 1995: Correlating landscape characteristics and infiltration – A study of surface sealing and subsoil conditions in semi-arid Botswana and Tanzania. Geografiska Annaler, 77A, 119–33Google Scholar

Perrone, T. J., 1979: Winter Shamal in the Persian Gulf. US Naval Environmental Prediction Research Facility, Technical Report TR 79–06, Monterey, California

Perry, A. H., 1984: Recent climate change – is there a signal amongst the noise?Progress in Physical Geography, 8, 111–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Perry, K. D., Cahill, T. A., Eldred, R. A., Dutcher, D. D., and Gill, T. E., 1997: Long-range transport of North African dust to the eastern United States. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 11225–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Perry, R. A., 1977: The evaluation and exploitation of semi-arid lands: Australian experience. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B278, 493–505CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Petit, J. R., Briat, M., and Royer, A., 1981: Ice age aerosol content from East Antarctic ice core samples and past wind strength. Nature, 293, 391–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Petrov, M. P., 1976: Deserts of the World. Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem

Péwé, T. L., 1981: Desert Dust: Origin, Characteristics, and Effect on Man. Geological Society of America, Special Paper 186, Boulder, Colorado

Philip, J. R., 1960: Advection and the arid zone: Theoretical. In Proceedings Australian Arid Zone Technical Conference, CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 41.1–41.9

Physick, W. L., and Tapper, N. J., 1990: A numerical study of circulations induced by a dry salt lake. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 1029–422.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Pichi-Sermolli, R. E. G., 1955a: Tropical east Africa (Ethiopia, Somaliland, Kenya, Tanganyika). In Plant Ecology Reviews of Research. UNESCO, Paris, Arid Zone Research, 6, 302–60

Pichi-Sermolli, R. E. G., 1955b: The arid vegetation types of tropical countries and their classification. In Plant Ecology, Proceedings of the Montpellier Symposium. UNESCO, Paris, Arid Zone Research, 5, 29–32

Pielke, R. A., 1984: Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida

Pike, J. G., 1970: Evaporation of groundwater from coastal playas (sabkhah) in the Arabian Gulf. J. Hydrology, 11, 79–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Pittock, A. B., 1983: Solar variability, weather and climate: an update. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 109, 23–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Portela, A., and Castro, M., 1996: Summer thermal lows in the Iberian Peninsula: A three-dimensional simulation. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 122, 1–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Prell, W. L., 1984: Monsoonal climate of the Arabian Sea during the Late Quaternary: A response to changing solar radiation. In Milankovitch and Climate: Understanding the Response to Astronomical Forcing, Part 1. A. Berger, J. Imbrie, J. Hays, G. Kukla, and B. Saltzman (Eds.), D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, pp. 349–66

Prell, W. L., and Kutzbach, J. E., 1992: Monsoon variability over the past 150,000 years. J. Geophys. Res., 92, 8411–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Price, M. R. S., A. bin H. al-Harthy, and R. P. Whitcombe, 1985: Fog moisture and its ecological effects in Oman. In Proceedings of the Conference on Arid Lands: Today and Tomorrow, Tucson. E. E. Whitehead (Ed.), Belhaven Press, London, pp. 69–88

Priestley, C. H. B., 1959: Turbulent Transfer in the Lower Atmosphere. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

Prospero, J. M., 1996a: The atmospheric transport of particles to the ocean. In Particle Flux in the Ocean. V. Ittekkott, S. Honjo, and P. J. Depetris (Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 19–52

Prospero, J. M., 1996b: Saharan dust transport over the North Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean: An overview. In The Impact of Desert Dust Across the Mediterranean. S. Guerzoni and R. Chester (Ed.), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, pp. 133–51

Prospero, J. M., 1999: Long-term measurements of the transport of African mineral dust to the southeastern United States: Implications for regional air quality. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 15917–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Prospero, J. M., and Carlson, T. N., 1972: Vertical and areal distribution of Saharan dust over the western equatorial North Atlantic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 77, 255–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Prospero, J. M., Glaccum, R. A., and Nees, R. T., 1981: Atmospheric transport of soil dust from Africa to South America. Nature, 289, 570–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Prospero, J. M., and Nees, R. T., 1986: Impact of the North African drought and El Niño on mineral dust in the Barbados trade wind. Nature, 320, 735–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Prospero, J. M., M. Uematsu, and D. L. Savoie, 1989: Mineral aerosol transport to the Pacific Ocean. In Chemical Oceanography. J. P. Riley, R. Chester, and R. A. Duce (Ed.), Vol. 10, Academic Press, London, pp. 188–218

Prueger, J. H., Hipps, L. E., and Cooper, D. I., 1996: Evaporation and the development of the local boundary layer over an irrigated surface in an arid region. Agricultural and Forest Meteor., 78, 223–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Puigdefabregas, J., and C. Aguilera, 1996: The Rambla Honda field site: Interactions of soil and vegetation along a catena in semi-arid southwest Spain. In Mediterranean Desertification and Land Use. C. J. Brandt and J. B. Thornes (Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 137–68

Pye, K., 1987: Aeolian Dust and Dust Deposits. Academic Press, London

Pye, K., and H. Tsoar, 1990: Aeolian Sand and Sand Dunes. Unwin Hyman, London

Quézel, P., 1965: La végétation du Sahara du Tchad à la Mauritanie. Gustav Fisher Verlag, Stuttgart

Quijano, A. L., Sokolik, I. N., and Toon, O. B., 2000: Radiative heating rates and direct radiative forcing by mineral dust in cloudy atmospheric conditions. J. Geophys. Res., 105, 12207–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Quine, T. A., Navas, A., Walling, D. E., and Machin, J., 1994: Soil erosion and redistribution on cultivated and uncultivated land near Las Bardenas in the central Ebro River Basin, Spain. Land Degradation and Rehabilitation, 5, 41–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rácz, Z., and Smith, R. K., 1999: The dynamics of heat lows. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 125, 225–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ramage, C. S., 1971: Monsoon Meteorology. Academic Press, New York

Ramaswamy, C., 1965: On a remarkable case of dynamical and physical interaction between middle and low latitude weather systems over Iran. Indian J. Meteor. Geophys., 16, 177–200Google Scholar

Rasch, C., 1898: Uber die Einfluss des Tropenklimas auf das Nervensystem. Allg. Z. Psychiat., 54, 745–75Google Scholar

Rasmussen, K. R., M. Sorensen, and B. B. Willetts, 1985: Measurement of saltation and wind strength on beaches. In Proceedings of International Workshop on Physics of Blown Sand. Memoirs 8, Department of Theoretical Statistics, Aarhus University, Denmark, pp. 301–25

Ratcliffe, R. A. S., 1981: Meteorological aspects of the 1975–76 drought in westerrn Europe. In Climate Variations and Variability: Facts and Theories. A. Berger (Ed.), D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, pp. 355–67

Rauh, W., 1985: The Peruvian-Chilean Deserts. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, Ecosystems of the World Volume 12A. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Ed.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, pp. 239–67

Rauh, W., 1986: The arid region of Madagascar. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, Ecosystems of the World Volume 12B. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (Ed.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, pp. 361–77

Raupach, M. R., Thom, A. S., and Edwards, I., 1980: A wind tunnel study of turbulent flow close to regularly arrayed rough surfaces. Bound. Layer Meteor., 18, 373–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Reeves, C. C., Jr., 1976: Caliche. Estacado Books, Lubbock

Reeves, R. G., A. Anson, and D. Landen (Eds.), 1975: Manual of Remote Sensing, Vols. I and II. American Society of Photogrammetry, Falls Church

Reid, I., and L. E. Frostick, 1997: Channel form, flows and sediments in deserts. In Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process Form and Change in Drylands. D. S. G. Thomas (Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 205–29

Reining, P., 1978: Handbook on Desertification Indicators. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C.

Reisner, M., 1986: Cadillac Desert: The American West and its Disappearing Water. Penguin, New York

Riehl, H., M. A. Alaka, C. L. Jordan, and R. J. Renard, 1954: The Jet Stream. Meteorological Monographs, American Meteorological Society, Vol. 2, no. 7

Rife, D. L., Warner, T. T., Chen, F., and Astling, E. A., 2002: Mechanisms for diurnal boundary-layer circulations in the Great Basin Desert. Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 921–382.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rijks, D., 1971: Analysis of rainfall reliability in the Senegal River Basin. In Agroclimatology in the Semi-arid Areas South of the Sahara, Proceedings of the Regional Technical Conference, Dakar, 8–20 February 1971, World Meteorological Organization, WMO – No. 340, pp. 32–41

Ripley, E. A., 1976a: Comments on the paper “Dynamics of deserts and drought in the Sahel” (Charney 1975). Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 102, 466–7Google Scholar

Ripley, E. A., 1976b: Drought in the Sahara: Insufficient biogeophysical feedback. Science, 191, 100CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Roberts, N., Taneb, M., Barker, P., Damnati, B., Toole, M., and Williamson, D., 1993: Timing of the younger Dryas event in East Africa from lake level change. Nature, 366, 146–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Robinove, C. J., Chavez, P. S. Jr., Gehring, D., and Holmgren, R., 1981: Arid land monitoring using Landsat albedo difference images. Remote Sensing Environ., 11, 133–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Robinson, S., 1963: Circulatory adjustments of men in hot environments. In Temperature, its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, Vol. 3, Pt. 3. C. M. Hertzfeld and J. D. Hardy (Eds.), Reinhold, New York, pp. 287–97

Robinson, T. W., 1958. Phreatophytes. United States Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1423

Rodwell, M. J., and Hoskins, B. J., 1996: Monsoons and the dynamics of deserts. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 122, 1385–404CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rognon, P., 1987: Late Quaternary climate reconstruction for the Maghreb (north Africa). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 58, 11–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ropelewski, C. F., and Halpert, M. S., 1987: Global and regional scale precipitation patterns associated with the El Niño/Southern Oscillation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 1606–262.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rose, C. W., 1968: Water transport in a soil with a daily temperature wave, II. Analysis. Aust. J. Soil Res., 6, 45–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rosen, M. R., 1994: The importance of groundwater in playas: A review of playa classifications and the sedimentology and hydrology of playas. In Paleoclimate and Basin Evolution of Playa Systems. M. R. Rosen (Ed.), The Geological Society of America, Special Paper 289, pp. 1–18

Rosenan, N., 1963: Changes of Climate. In Proceedings of the Rome Symposium. UNESCO, Paris, and World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, pp. 67–73

Rossby, C. G., 1941. The scientific basis of modern meteorology. In Climate and Man: Yearbook of Agriculture – 1941. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., pp. 599–655

Rossignol-Strict, M., 1983: African monsoons, an immediate climate response to orbital insolation. Nature, 304, 46–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rowell, D. P., and Blondin, C., 1990: The influence of soil wetness distribution on short-range rainfall forecasting in the West African Sahel. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 116, 1471–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rowson, D. R., and Colucci, S. J., 1992: Synoptic climatology of thermal low-pressure systems over south-western North America. Intl. J. Climatol., 12, 529–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rozanov, B., 1990: Global assessment of desertification: status and methodologies. In Desertification Revisited Proceedings of an ad hoc consultative Meeting on the Assessment of Desertification. UNEP DC/PAC, Nairobi, pp. 45–122

Rubio, J. L., 1987: Desertificacion en la communidad valenciana antecedantes historicos y situacion actual de erosion. Rev Valenc. Estud. Autonomicos, 7, 231–58Google Scholar

Rumney, G. R., 1968: Climatology and the World's Climates. Macmillan, New York

Russell, R. J., 1936: The desert-rainfall factor in denudation. In International Geological Congress, Report of the XVI Session, 1933, Vol. 2, pp. 753–63Google Scholar

Rutllant, J., and Ulriksen, P., 1979: Boundary-layer dynamics of the extremely arid northern part of Chile: The Antofagasta Field Experiment. Bound. Layer Meteor., 15, 41–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Sagan, C., Toon, O. B., and Pollack, J. B., 1979: Anthropogenic albedo changes and the earth's climate. Science, 206, 1363–8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Said, F. J. L., Benech, B., Druilhet, A., Durand, P., Marciniak, M. H., and Monteny, B., 1997: Spatial variability in airborne surface flux measurements during HAPEX-Sahel. J. Hydrology, 188–9, 878–911CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Sammis, T. W., and Gay, L. W., 1979: Evapotranspiration from an arid zone plant community. J. Arid Environments, 2, 313–21Google Scholar

Sanger, R. H., 1954: The Arabian Peninsula. Cornell University Press, Cornell

Sargent, F., II, 1963: Tropical neurasthenia: Giant or windmill. In Environmental Physiology and Psychology in Arid Conditions. Arid Zone Research XXII, UNESCO, Paris, pp. 273–314