One of the reasons given for widening participation to HE, as discussed in Chapter 10, is that societies need more trained professionals in certain areas such as doctors, nurses, engineers and social workers. The two areas I have researched in greatest detail involve reported shortages of scientists (Gorard and See, 2008, 2009; Smith and Gorard, 2011) and of school teachers in the UK (Gorard et al, 2006; Gorard 2013e) and US (Smith and Gorard, 2007b). This work includes detailed accounts of the ‘pipelines’ from early years to employment and retention in STEM or as a teacher.

Shortage of scientists

STEM subjects, students and teachers occupy a privileged position in UK government education policy because of their economic importance and apparent shortages (HEFCE, 2008). Scientists are deemed crucial to any economy and the health of any nation, but to be in short supply and/or reducing in proportion to the number of available opportunities (CBI, 2010). The funding for STEM subjects, students and teachers has been retained, even in economic downturns. The UK and other developed countries are trying to maintain or even grow the number of scientists that they train and employ. The US also has its version of the ‘science problem’. In 2004, 32 per cent of first degrees from US HEIs were awarded in STEM subjects compared with 56 per cent in China, with the proportion of ‘foreign-born’ scientists and engineers in the US growing rapidly. However, their numbers have decreased, leading to alternative concerns that the US will lose out in the global marketplace for the best STEM scholars to emerging economies such as India and China (NSF, 2008). The purportedly reduced uptake in science has been variously attributed to poor initial education in science, high levels of dropout once science becomes optional at school, and poor pay and promotion for scientists in comparison with other professions (Butz et al, 2006).

As with the US, different countries are worrying about recruiting and retaining fewer scientists than their competitors, and this has led to considerable government spending on related interventions in the UK and elsewhere. As early as 2004, the UK STEM Mapping Review reported 470 STEM initiatives run by government departments and external agencies designed to engage young people, and in particular, under-represented groups, in STEM subjects. The number has grown considerably since then.