This chapter is concerned with the different features and aspects of language that contribute to what we know as ‘academic style’. We will consider this at different levels through different forms of analysis. We shall then look at a feature of academic language – cautious language, covered by ‘hedging’ or ‘vague language’. Finally, we shall look at more general aspects of style, and some implications for teaching.

Subject-specific language, and its organisation, has been subjected to various types of analysis over a long period of time, starting with register analysis, followed by discourse analysis and, more recently, genre analysis. These will now be looked at in turn.

Register analysis

In the 1960s, the focus was on register analysis, whereby statistical analyses were conducted into, for example, verb tense frequencies and vocabulary frequencies for different subjects (ESP) in order to provide grammar registers and lexicons of those subjects.

The names of Halliday, McIntosh and Strevens (1964) are usually associated with the concept of register in ESP. However, Michael West was, perhaps, the true originator of register analysis in 1936 with his count of the frequency of the occurrence of the meanings and uses of words in a study of five million running words. This was reprinted as A General Service List of English Words (Longman 1953), and presented a list of 2000 of the most common words ‘considered suitable as the basis of vocabulary for learning English as a foreign language’.

Chapter 2 referred to tests as one source of information, among several others, in needs analysis. Chapter 4 mentioned feedback during and after EAP courses. Both aspects form part of the process of evaluation, which is an intrinsic part of learning and teaching. The purpose of evaluation is ‘to collect information systematically in order to indicate the worth or merit of a programme or project… and to inform decision making’ (Weir and Roberts 1994), both from the point of view of development and the end product. Evaluation applies to both students and to courses as a whole, and can make use of quantitative methods, e.g. tests, and qualitative methods, e.g. observations, interviews, and questionnaires.

First, we shall look at the different test types, bearing in mind that testing is only one component in the evaluation process (Rea-Dickins and Germaine 1992). Then we shall look at evaluation more generally under the umbrella term ‘feedback’.

‘Test’ and ‘examination’

The words ‘test’ and ‘examination’ are often used synonymously. Sometimes a distinction is made according to the criterion of formality or external/public, where test is ‘smaller’, local, less formal and often part of an ongoing process of evaluation or feedback. However, this distinction breaks down when well-established, formal public exams are known as ‘tests’. Nevertheless, in this chapter, the word ‘test’ will be used to refer to the various evaluation procedures utilised in EAP courses.

As academic writing is so important for students of all kinds, and as it is such a wide umbrella term, it is hardly surprising that there is range of approaches and types of practice for it. Sometimes these depend upon an underlying philosophy, sometimes upon the starting-point of the students, sometimes upon the purpose and type of writing, and sometimes simply on personal preference.

The different approaches in the USA are usefully summarised and put into context by Silva (1990). The starting-point was controlled or guided composition, with its emphasis on the manipulation of language structures and sentence patterns. In Britain, such an approach, based on substitution tables, stemmed from the work of F. G. French, and in New Zealand from H. V. George – both in the 1960s. This led, in general EFL, to books on composition writing making use of substitution tables or writing frames (e.g. Spencer 1967; Moody 1974).

The next major development in the USA was ‘current traditional rhetoric’, in which the central concern was the logical arrangement of discourse forms in the context of the paragraph (e.g. Imhoof and Hudson 1975, in the UK). In Britain, this approach is better known as rhetorical-functional, or simply the functional approach. From an initial concern with sentences and paragraphs, the focus switched to essay development with its structure of introduction, body and conclusion.

BALEAP was founded in 1972. Initially, it was known as SELMOUS (The Group for ‘Special English Language Materials for Overseas University Students’). The name reflected the main priority at the time, which was to produce appropriate teaching materials. In 1989 the name was changed to BALEAP, in order to indicate the reduction in emphasis on materials and the increase in professionalism of member institutions on a broader front. This entails not only high standards of teaching on EAP courses, but also research, and adequate administrative and pastoral procedures. Membership is open to British university departments which provide courses in EAP for overseas students. The current membership is more than 60 British universities.

Members of BALEAP subscribe to a Code of Practice which sets standards for courses in EAP/study skills. Since 1991 BALEAP has operated an Accreditation Scheme whereby members' courses are visited by assessors. The Scheme is recognised by the British Council, which is represented on the Accreditation Scheme Committee (BASC). A full account of the Scheme is contained in an article by June O'Brien (EAP Course Evaluation and Quality Assurance) in Evaluation and Course Design in EAP, edited by M. Hewings and T. Dudley-Evans, Review of ELT, 6(1). Phoenix ELT, 1996. The Code of Practice is described by C. Weir and J. Roberts in Evaluation in ELT, Blackwell, 1994 (in Appendix 4.1, which lists the criteria for assessment, together with a checklist of the necessary documentation).

An imaginary case study (3)

In Chapter 2 we looked at an imaginary case study of a student from Nepal. We noted that, apart from the subject to be studied and any language difficulties, there were other factors to be considered. These involved differences in academic environment, study modes, expectations and aspects of the whole culture.

To continue our case study a little further, in the UK, Gopal attends an eight-week pre-sessional EAP course prior to starting his studies in Development Economics. One day he attends a lecture on the system of government in Britain: it is given by a guest lecturer from the Department of Government. After the plenary session, the course tutors will be discussing the lecture and its particular difficulties with the students in their classes. Meanwhile, Gopal is feeling confused because of interweaving and conflicting thoughts and observations.

During the lecture, Gopal tries, with difficulty, to write down almost everything the lecturer says and writes on the blackboard. But he notices that some students only write brief notes, while one or two others are writing notes in a kind of diagram. He is rather surprised when one student asks a question. Still others, he notices, are talking together quite a lot. Gopal does not find the lecture easy to follow: the lecturer seems to make jokes, but Gopal cannot understand them.

The purpose of this chapter is to consider the desirability and feasibility of teachers producing their own ESAP material for teaching. This may be done because there are no suitable books, or to supplement existing books; there may also be other reasons. First of all, we shall look at differing views on the subject, coupled with advice that has been proffered.

Against and for

One view is expressed by Hutchinson and Waters (1987) who consider that ‘materials writing is best regarded as the last resort, when all other possibilities of providing materials have been exhausted’. Sheldon (1988) also remarks on ‘the sheer labour-intensiveness of developing classroom materials’. Hutchinson and Waters offer a few hints for ‘those who, in the end, feel they have to write new materials’:

1. a) Don't re-invent the wheel. Use existing materials as a source for ideas.

2. b) It's better to work in a team, if only to retain your sanity.

3. c) Don't set out to write the perfect materials on the first draft. Materials can always be improved. Do what you can and try it out. Use what you learn from this experience to revise and expand the materials.

4. d) Don't underestimate the time needed for materials writing. It can be a very time-consuming business.

5. e) Pay careful attention to the appearance of your materials. If they look boring and scruffy, they will be treated as such.

6. f) Good luck!

The previous chapter referred to the use of questionnaires in surveys of students' language and study skills difficulties. In this chapter we shall be looking at some of these surveys and other investigations, and the information that they provide about difficulties and needs. In some cases, the surveys focus on one or two language or study skills, in others, they encompass a wide range. Most of the investigations looked at are in the UK and the USA, as more has been reported from these countries, but a few others are also included. The students who are reported on are from most parts of the world. The research findings provide a necessary background for later issues, particularly those involving syllabus and course design, and the use of appropriate materials. They also give ideas for the type of investigations that can be conducted, and possible areas for further research.

Surveys: a note of caution

A number of surveys are reported below; they seem, at times, to show different results or different emphases. Care needs to be taken in interpreting the results to ensure that you are comparing like with like. Clearly, students in different countries may have different difficulties and needs, just as students studying different subjects may.

The purpose of Part II is to look in some detail at six main study skills areas: academic reading, with the addition, separately, of vocabulary development, which links reading and writing; academic writing; lectures and note-taking; speaking for academic purposes; reference/research skills; and examination skills. In each chapter, there are commentaries on the research in that field, usually taken from journal articles. In addition, there are references to appropriate books, showing different approaches, types of activity or exercise, etc. Introspect and discuss, with its questions and tasks, concludes each chapter.

Many of the books that are referred to in these chapters are, or have been, commonly used on EAP courses in the UK. A number of them are also used in other countries, both on short and long courses. The books are listed in Appendix 1.2: Selected study skills books. It should be noted that some of them are now out of print. As you look at the extracts (included in Appendix 1.1 in chapter order), it might be appropriate to think of some of the principles of evaluation suggested in the last chapter viz.

Reading, as a skill, is normally linked with writing. This is a fundamental characteristic of the target academic situation in which students are typically reading books and journals, noting, summarising, paraphrasing, and then writing essays, etc. In practice material for reading, the link with writing is normally included. Although the focus may be on various reading strategies and comprehension practice, the resultant exercises usually involve writing (apart from some multiple-choice questions and yes/no, true/false formats).

Reading for academic purposes is a multifaceted subject. However, there is one fundamental aspect which can be the starting point for other considerations. When students read, it is for a purpose. Clearly, students can have different purposes in their reading; these will include:

1. – to obtain information (facts, data, etc.)

2. – to understand ideas or theories, etc.

3. – to discover authors' viewpoints

4. – to seek evidence for their own point of view (and to quote) all of which may be needed for writing their essays, etc.

In the process of reading, students will be concerned with the subject content of what they read and the language in which it is expressed. Both aspects involve comprehension, though of different kinds. Depending on the reading purpose, different reading strategies and skills will be involved; in turn, the skills can be divided into sub-skills. Some of these aspects were alluded to in Chapter 1 in the context of effective reading and using the method SQ3R for intensive reading.

Speaking for academic purposes is an overall term used to describe spoken language in various academic settings. In addition, it suggests that the language used is normally formal or neutral, and obeys the conventions associated with the genre or activity. Typically, situations or activities covered are:

1. – asking questions in lectures;

2. – participation in seraminars/discussions;

3. – making oral presentations; answering ensuing questions/points;

4. – verbalising data, and giving oral instructions, in seminars/workshops/laboratories.

Individual tutorials and supervisions, although different in structure and purpose to the above, nevertheless seemingly need many of the same skills as those required in seminar discussions. Unfortunately, there is a shortage of data on tutorials: consequently, they will not be commented on separately here. Discussions with fellow-students about aspects of studies are relevant but are excluded, as the language is likely to be informal/colloquial and the situations varied.

The situations outlined above will be looked at in this chapter; appropriate teaching materials will also be included. At the end of the chapter, reference will be made to individual speech difficulties.

Lectures

Various surveys, referred to in Chapter 3, have shown that one of the biggest difficulties for students is expressing themselves in speech. Although this mostly applied to speaking in seminars, it is also relevant to asking questions in lectures.

McKenna (1987) analysed the questions asked in 33 lectures on general phonetics at the University of Michigan.

Although vocabulary development, as such, is not a specific study skill, but relates to all language learning, it is given separate attention here. The reason for this is twofold. Firstly, and perhaps most importantly, students usually want to increase their store of vocabulary, regarding it as a yardstick of their language improvement. ‘Vocabulary knowledge is the single most important area of second language competence’ regarding academic achievement (Saville-Troike 1984). Secondly, as it appears not to be a major area of concern in EAP courses (evidenced by the data in the survey looked at in Chapter 4), there is a tendency for it to become incidental to reading comprehension. The result is that it may be left to students' indirect learning, which may be inefficient.

Vocabulary development is of concern to all four language skills, but here it is treated as a link between reading and writing. This is partly for convenience, in that the printed word is more of a known quantity, and partly from convention, namely, that students and teachers are more familiar with its practice in the written mode. Clearly, however, there is transfer from one to the other. This chapter looks at some background studies and research into vocabulary acquisition, and explores the case for active involvement in vocabulary development.

Vocabulary learning and teaching relate to both reading, with its receptive understanding of language, and writing, with its productive use.