The Link between Exclusion and Extremism

Part I - The Link between Exclusion and Extremism

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 16 May 2024

Edited by

Michaela Pfundmair ,

Andrew H. Hales and

Kipling D. Williams

Show author details

Michaela Pfundmair: Affiliation:
Federal University of Administrative Sciences, Germany
Andrew H. Hales: Affiliation:
University of Mississippi
Kipling D. Williams: Affiliation:
Purdue University, Indiana

Book contents

Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'

Type: Chapter
Information: Exclusion and Extremism
A Psychological Perspective
, pp. 5 - 120

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009408165 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, C., Hildreth, J. A. D., & Howland, L. (2015). Is the desire for status a fundamental human motive? A review of the empirical literature. Psychological Bulletin, 141(3), 574–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038781 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Andrighetto, L., Riva, P., & Gabbiadini, A. (2019). Lonely hearts and angry minds: Online dating rejection increases male (but not female) hostility. Aggressive Behavior, 45(5), 571–581. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21852 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Aquino, K., & Douglas, S. (2003). Identity threat and antisocial behavior in organizations: The moderating effects of individual differences, aggressive modeling, and hierarchical status. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 90(1), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-5978(02)00517-4 CrossRef Google Scholar

Aquino, K., Tripp, T. M., & Bies, R. J. (2001). How employees respond to personal offense: The effects of blame attribution, victim status, and offender status on revenge and reconciliation in the workplace. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.52 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Arriaga, X. B., Capezza, N. M., Reed, J. T., Wesselmann, E. D., & Williams, K. D. (2014). With partners like you, who needs strangers? Ostracism involving a romantic partner. Personal Relationships, 21(4), 557–569. https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12048 CrossRef Google Scholar

Åslund, C., Starrin, B., Leppert, J., & Nilsson, K. W. (2009). Social status and shaming experiences related to adolescent overt aggression at school. Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for Research on Aggression, 35(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20286 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bäck, E. A., Bäck, H., Altermark, N., & Knapton, H. (2018). The quest for significance: Attitude adaption to a radical group following social exclusion. International Journal of Developmental Science, 12(1–2), 25–36. https://doi.org/10.3233/DEV-170230 CrossRef Google Scholar

Bastian, B., & Haslam, N. (2010). Excluded from humanity: The dehumanizing effects of social ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(1), 107–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.06.022 CrossRef Google Scholar

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bernstein, M. J., Neubauer, A. B., Benfield, J. A., Potter, L., & Smyth, J. M. (2021). Within‐person effects of inclusion and exclusion on well‐being in daily life. Personal Relationships, 28(4), 940–960. https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12399 CrossRef Google Scholar

Bernstein, M. J., Sacco, D. F., Young, S. G., Hugenberg, K., & Cook, E. (2010). Being “in” with the in-crowd: The effects of social exclusion and inclusion are enhanced by the perceived essentialism of ingroups and outgroups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(8), 999–1009. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210376059 CrossRef Google Scholar

Blackhart, G. C., Nelson, B. C., Knowles, M. L., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). Rejection elicits emotional reactions but neither causes immediate distress nor lowers self-esteem: A meta-analytic review of 192 studies on social exclusion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13(4), 269–309. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309346065 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Borum, R. (2014). Psychological vulnerabilities and propensities for involvement in violent extremism. Behavioral Sciences & The Law, 32(3), 286–305. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2110 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bosson, J. K., & Vandello, J. A. (2011). Precarious manhood and its links to action and aggression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(2), 82–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411402669 CrossRef Google Scholar

Brewer, M. B. (1991). The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17(5), 475–482. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167291175001 CrossRef Google Scholar

Chen, Z., DeWall, C. N., Poon, K. T., & Chen, E. W. (2012). When destiny hurts: Implicit theories of relationships moderate aggressive responses to ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(5), 1029–1036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.04.002 CrossRef Google Scholar

Cherney, A., & Murphy, K. (2019). Support for terrorism: The role of beliefs in jihad and institutional responses to terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 31(5), 1049–1069. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2017.1313735 CrossRef Google Scholar

Dahl, E., Niedbala, E. M., & Hohman, Z. P. (2019). Loving the group that denies you first: Social identity effects of ostracism before inclusion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(2), 284–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218784901 CrossRef Google Scholar

Downey, G., Feldman, S., & Ayduk, O. (2000). Rejection sensitivity and male violence in romantic relationships. Personal Relationships, 7(1), 45–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2000.tb00003.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Eidelman, S., Silvia, P. J., & Biernat, M. (2006). Responding to deviance: Target exclusion and differential devaluation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(9), 1153–1164. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206288720 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Farr, K. (2019). Trouble with the other: The role of romantic rejection in rampage school shootings by adolescent males. Violence and Gender, 6(3), 147–153. https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2018.0046 CrossRef Google Scholar

Fayant, M.-P., Muller, D., Hartgerink, C. H. J., & Lantian, A. (2014). Is ostracism by a despised outgroup really hurtful? Social Psychology, 45(6), 489–494.CrossRef Google Scholar

Fiset, J., Al Hajj, R., & Vongas, J. G. (2017). Workplace ostracism seen through the lens of power. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01528 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gaffney, A. M., Rast, D. E., Hackett, J. D., & Hogg, M. A. (2014). Further to the right: Uncertainty, political polarization and the American “Tea Party” movement. Social Influence, 9(4), 272–288. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2013.842495 CrossRef Google Scholar

Gardner, W. L., Pickett, C. L., & Knowles, M. (2005). Social snacking and shielding: Using social symbols, selves, and surrogates in the service of belonging needs. In Williams, K. D., Forgas, J. P., & von Hippel, W. (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 227–241). Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Gonsalkorale, K., & Williams, K. D. (2007). The KKK won’t let me play: Ostracism even by a despised outgroup hurts. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37(6), 1176–1186. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.392 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hales, A. H. (2018). Death as a metaphor for ostracism: Social invincibility, autopsy, necromancy, and resurrection. Mortality, 23(4), 366–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/13576275.2017.1382462 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hales, A. H., Dvir, M., Wesselmann, E. D., Kruger, D. J., & Finkenauer, C. (2018). Cell phone-induced ostracism threatens fundamental needs. The Journal of Social Psychology, 158(4), 460–473. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2018.1439877 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hales, A. H., McIntyre, M. M., Rudert, S. C., Williams, K. D., & Thomas, H. (2021). Ostracized and observed: The presence of an audience affects the experience of being excluded. Self and Identity, 20(1), 94–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2020.1807403 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hales, A. H., Ren, D., & Williams, K. D. (2016). Protect, correct, and eject (Harkins, S. G., Williams, K. D., & Burger, J., Eds.; Vol. 1). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859870.013.26 Google Scholar

Hales, A. H., Wesselmann, E. D., & Williams, K. D. (2016). Prayer, self-affirmation, and distraction improve recovery from short-term ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 64, 8–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2016.01.002 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hales, A. H., & Williams, K. D. (2018). Marginalized individuals and extremism: The role of ostracism in openness to extreme groups. Journal of Social Issues, 74(1), 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12257 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hales, A. H., & Williams, K. D. (2020). Extremism leads to ostracism. Social Psychology, 51(3), 149–156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000406 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hales, A. H., & Williams, K. D. (2021). Social ostracism: Theoretical foundations and basic principles. In Van Lange, P. A. M., Higgins, E. T, & Kruglanski, A. W. (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (3rd ed.; pp. 337–349). Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Hartgerink, C. H. J., van Beest, I., Wicherts, J. M., & Williams, K. D. (2015). The ordinal effects of ostracism: A meta-analysis of 120 Cyberball studies. PLoS ONE, 10(5), e0127002. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127002 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hogg, M. A. (2007). Uncertainty–identity theory. In Zanna, M. P. (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 39, pp. 69–126). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(06)39002-8 Google Scholar

Hogg, M. A. (2014). From uncertainty to extremism: Social categorization and identity processes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), 338–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414540168 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hornsey, M. J., & Jetten, J. (2004). The individual within the group: Balancing the need to belong with the need to be different. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(3), 248–264. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_2 CrossRef Google Scholar

Iannone, N. E., McCarty, M. K., Kelly, J. R., & Williams, K. D. (2014). Friends with each other but strangers to you: Source relationship softens ostracism’s blow. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 18(4), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1037/gdn0000018 CrossRef Google Scholar

Jasko, K., LaFree, G., & Kruglanski, A. (2017). Quest for significance and violent extremism: The case of domestic radicalization. Political Psychology, 38(5), 815–831. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12376 CrossRef Google Scholar

Jauch, M., Rudert, S. C., & Greifeneder, R. (2022). Social pain by non-social agents: Exclusion hurts and provokes punishment even if the excluding source is a computer. Acta Psychologica, 230, 103753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103753 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kerr, N. L., & Levine, J. M. (2008). The detection of social exclusion: Evolution and beyond. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 12(1), 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2699.12.1.39 CrossRef Google Scholar

Knapton, H. M. (2014). The recruitment and radicalisation of western citizens: Does ostracism have a role in homegrown terrorism? Journal of European Psychology Students, 5(1), 38–48. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.bo Google Scholar

Knapton, H. M., Bäck, H., & Bäck, E. A. (2015). The social activist: Conformity to the ingroup following rejection as a predictor of political participation. Social Influence, 10(2), 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2014.966856 CrossRef Google Scholar

Kowalski, R. M., Leary, M., Hendley, T., et al. (2021). K–12, college/university, and mass shootings: Similarities and differences. The Journal of Social Psychology, 161(6), 753–778. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2021.1900047 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kruglanski, A. W., Gelfand, M. J., Bélanger, J. J., et al. (2014). The psychology of radicalization and deradicalization: How significance quest impacts violent extremism: Processes of radicalization and deradicalization. Political Psychology, 35, 69–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12163 CrossRef Google Scholar

Leary, M. R., Kowalski, R. M., Smith, L., & Phillips, S. (2003). Teasing, rejection, and violence: Case studies of the school shootings. Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for Research on Aggression, 29(3), 202–214. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.10061 CrossRef Google Scholar

Leonardelli, G. J., Pickett, C. L., & Brewer, M. B. (2010). Optimal distinctiveness theory. In Zanna, M. P. & Olson, J. M. (Eds.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 43, pp. 63–113). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(10)43002-6 Google Scholar

Maner, J. K., DeWall, C. N., Baumeister, R. F., & Schaller, M. (2007). Does social exclusion motivate interpersonal reconnection? Resolving the “porcupine problem.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(1), 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.42 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Marinucci, M., & Riva, P. (2021). Surrendering to social emptiness: Chronic social exclusion longitudinally predicts resignation in asylum seekers. British Journal of Social Psychology, 60(2), 429–447. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12410 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

McCauley, C., & Moskalenko, S. (2008). Mechanisms of political radicalization: Pathways toward terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 20(3), 415–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550802073367 CrossRef Google Scholar

Nezlek, J. B., Wesselmann, E. D., Wheeler, L., & Williams, K. D. (2012). Ostracism in everyday life. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 16(2), 91–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028029 CrossRef Google Scholar

Nezlek, J. B., Wesselmann, E. D., Wheeler, L., & Williams, K. D. (2015). Ostracism in everyday life: The effects of ostracism on those who ostracize. The Journal of Social Psychology, 155(5), 432–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2015.1062351 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Orehek, E., & Forest, A. L. (2016). When people serve as means to goals: Implications of a motivational account of close relationships. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(2), 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721415623536 CrossRef Google Scholar

Orehek, E., Forest, A. L., & Barbaro, N. (2018). A people-as-means approach to interpersonal relationships. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(3), 373–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617744522 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Parsons, A. S. (1986). Messianic personalism: A role analysis of the Unification Church. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 25, 141–161.CrossRef Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M. (2019). Ostracism promotes a terroristic mindset. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 11(2), 134–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2018.1443965 CrossRef Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M., Wood, N. R., Hales, A., & Wesselmann, E. D. (2022). How social exclusion makes radicalism flourish: A review of empirical evidence. Journal of Social Issues, josi.12520. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12520 CrossRef Google Scholar

Ren, D., Wesselmann, E. D., & Williams, K. D. (2018). Hurt people hurt people: Ostracism and aggression. Current Opinion in Psychology, 19, 34–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.026 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Renström, E. A., Bäck, H., & Knapton, H. M. (2020). Exploring a pathway to radicalization: The effects of social exclusion and rejection sensitivity. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 23(8), 1204–1229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220917215 CrossRef Google Scholar

Richman, S. B. (2020). Man’s Best Friend? The Effects of Being Rejected by a Pet. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 39(6), 498–522. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2020.39.6.498 CrossRef Google Scholar

Riva, P., Montali, L., Wirth, J. H., Curioni, S., & Williams, K. D. (2017). Chronic social exclusion and evidence for the resignation stage: An empirical investigation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 34(4), 541–564. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407516644348 CrossRef Google Scholar

Riva, P., Williams, K. D., Torstrick, A. M., & Montali, L. (2014). Orders to shoot (a camera): Effects of ostracism on obedience. The Journal of Social Psychology, 154(3), 208–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2014.883354 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Robinson, S. L., O’Reilly, J., & Wang, W. (2013). Invisible at work: An integrated model of workplace ostracism. Journal of Management, 39(1), 203–231. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206312466141 CrossRef Google Scholar

Romero‐Canyas, R., Downey, G., Berenson, K., Ayduk, O., & Kang, N. J. (2010). Rejection sensitivity and the rejection–hostility link in romantic relationships. Journal of Personality, 78(1), 119–148. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00611.x CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Rudert, S. C., Janke, S., & Greifeneder, R. (2021). Ostracism breeds depression: Longitudinal associations between ostracism and depression over a three-year-period. Journal of Affective Disorders Reports, 4, 100118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100118 CrossRef Google Scholar

Schaafsma, J., & Williams, K. D. (2012). Exclusion, intergroup hostility, and religious fundamentalism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 829–837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.015 CrossRef Google Scholar

Schachter, S. (1951). Deviation, rejection, and communication. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46, 190–207.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Simpson, B., Willer, R., & Feinberg, M. (2018). Does violent protest backfire? Testing a theory of public reactions to activist violence. Socius, 4, 2378023118803189. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023118803189 CrossRef Google Scholar

Snapp, C. M., & Leary, M. R. (2001). Hurt feelings among new acquaintances: Moderating effects of interpersonal familiarity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 18(3), 315–326. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407501183001 CrossRef Google Scholar

Southern Poverty Law Center (n.d.). Male supremacy. www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/ideology/male-supremacy Google Scholar

Tiedens, L. Z. (2001). Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: The effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(1), 86–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.86 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Toner, K., Leary, M. R., Asher, M. W., & Jongman-Sereno, K. P. (2013). Feeling superior is a bipartisan issue: Extremity (not direction) of political views predicts perceived belief superiority. Psychological Science, 24(12), 2454–2462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613494848 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

van Beest, I., & Williams, K. D. (2006). When inclusion costs and ostracism pays, ostracism still hurts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(5), 918–928. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.5.918 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Venhaus, J. M. (2010). Why youth join al-Qaeda. United States Institute of Peace. www.usip.org/sites/default/files/resources/SR236Venhaus.pdf Google Scholar

Venter, M. A. (1998). Susceptibility of adolescents to cults. Southern African Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 10, 93–106.CrossRef Google Scholar

Warburton, W. A., Williams, K. D., & Cairns, D. R. (2006). When ostracism leads to aggression: The moderating effects of control deprivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(2), 213–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.03.005 CrossRef Google Scholar

Webber, D., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2018). The social psychological makings of a terrorist. Current Opinion in Psychology, 19, 131–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.024 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wesselmann, E. D., Cardoso, F. D., Slater, S., & Williams, K. D. (2012). To be looked at as though air: Civil attention matters. Psychological Science, 23(2), 166–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611427921 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wesselmann, E. D., Grzybowski, M. R., Steakley-Freeman, D. M., et al. (2016). Social exclusion in everyday life. In Riva, P. & Eck, J. (Eds.), Social exclusion (pp. 3–23). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33033-4_1 CrossRef Google Scholar

Wesselmann, E. D., Nairne, J. S., & Williams, K. D. (2012). An evolutionary social psychological approach to studying the effects of ostracism. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology, 6(3), 309–328. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099249 CrossRef Google Scholar

Wesselmann, E. D., Ren, D., Swim, E., & Williams, K. D. (2013). Rumination hinders recovery from ostracism. International Journal of Developmental Science, 7(1), 33–39.CrossRef Google Scholar

Wesselmann, E. D., & Williams, K. D. (2010). The potential balm of religion and spirituality for recovering from ostracism. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 7(1), 31–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766080903497623 CrossRef Google Scholar

Wesselmann, E. D., Williams, K. D., Pryor, J. B., et al. (2014). Revisiting Schachter’s research on rejection, deviance, and communication (1951). Social Psychology, 45(3), 164–169. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000180 CrossRef Google Scholar

Wesselmann, E. D., Wirth, J. H., & Bernstein, M. J. (2017). Expectations of social inclusion and exclusion. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 112. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00112 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A temporal need-threat model. In Zanna, M. P. (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 41, pp. 275–314). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)00406-1 Google Scholar

Williams, K. D., Bernieri, F. J., Faulkner, S. L., Gada-Jain, N., & Grahe, J. E. (2000). The Scarlet Letter study: Five days of social ostracism. Journal of Personal & Interpersonal Loss, 5(1), 19–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/10811440008407846 CrossRef Google Scholar

Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K. T., & Choi, W. (2000). Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the internet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 748–762.CrossRef Google Scholar

Williams, K. D., Hales, A. H., & Michels, C. (2019). Social ostracism as a factor motivating interest in extreme groups. In Rudert, S. C., Greifeneder, R., & Williams, K. D. (Eds.), Current directions in ostracism, social exclusion and rejection research (pp. 17–30). Routledge.Google Scholar

Williams, K. D., & Jarvis, B. (2006). Cyberball: A program for use in research on interpersonal ostracism and acceptance. Behavior Research Methods, 38(1), 174–180. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03192765 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wirth, J. H., Sacco, D. F., Hugenberg, K., & Williams, K. D. (2010). Eye gaze as relational evaluation: Averted eye gaze leads to feelings of ostracism and relational devaluation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(7), 869–882. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210370032 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zadro, L., Arriaga, X. B., & Williams, K. D. (2008). Relational ostracism. In Forgas, J. P. & Fitness, J. (Eds.), Social relationships: Cognitive, affective, and motivational processes (pp. 305–320). Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Zadro, L., Boland, C., & Richardson, R. (2006). How long does it last? The persistence of the effects of ostracism in the socially anxious. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(5), 692–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.10.007 CrossRef Google Scholar

Zadro, L., Godwin, A., & Gonsalkorale, K. (2014). “It is better to give than to receive”: The role of motivation and self-control in determining the consequences of ostracism for targets and sources. In Forgas, J. P. & Harmon-Jones, E. (Eds.), Motivation and its regulation: The control within (pp. 351–366). Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Zadro, L., Williams, K. D., & Richardson, R. (2004). How low can you go? Ostracism by a computer is sufficient to lower self-reported levels of belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(4), 560–567.CrossRef Google Scholar

References

Agius, C., Edney-Browne, A., Nicholas, L., & Cook, K. (2022). Anti-feminism, gender and the far-right gap in C/PVE measures. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 15(3), 681–705. https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2021.1967299 CrossRef Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar

Ayduk, Ö., Gyurak, A., & Luerssen, A. (2008). Individual differences in the rejection–aggression link in the hot sauce paradigm: The case of rejection sensitivity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(3), 775–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2007.07.004 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bäck, E. A., & Altermark, N. (2016). Gemenskap och utstötning: Socialpsykologiska perspektiv på politiskt våld. In Edling, C. & Rostami, A. (Eds.), Våldets sociala dimensioner. Studentlitteratur.Google Scholar

Bäck, E. A., Bäck, H., Altermark, N., & Knapton, H. M. (2018). The quest for significance: Attitude adaption to a radical group following social exclusion. International Journal of Developmental Science, 12(1–2), 25–36. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.3233/DEV-170230 CrossRef Google Scholar

Bäck, E. A., Bäck, H., & Garcia Albacete, G. (2013). Protest activity, social incentives, and rejection sensitivity: Results from a survey experiment about tuition fees. Contention, 1, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3167/cont.2013.010101 CrossRef Google Scholar

Bäck, E. A., Bäck, H., & Knapton, H. M (2015). Group belongingness and collective action: Effects of need to belong and rejection sensitivity on willingness to participate in protests activities. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 56(5), 537–544. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12225 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities.Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(3),193–209. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_3 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bates, L. (2020) Men who hate women: From incels to pickup artists, the truth about extreme misogyny and how it affects us all. Simon & Schuster UK.Google Scholar

Bélanger, J. J., Moyano, M., Muhammad, H., et al. (2019). Radicalization leading to violence: A test of the 3 N Model. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 42. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00042 CrossRef Google Scholar

Berenson, K. R., Gyurak, A., Ayduk, Ö., et al. (2009). Rejection sensitivity and disruption of attention by social threat cues. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(6), 1064–1072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.07.007 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Borum, R. (2011). Radicalization into violent extremism I: A review of social science theories. Journal of Strategic Security, 4(4), 7–36. https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.4.4.1 CrossRef Google Scholar

Bosson, J. K., Vandello, J. A., Burnaford, R. M., Weaver, J. R., & Arzu Wasti, S. (2009). Precarious manhood and displays of physical aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(5), 623–634. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208331161 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss, Volume 1: Attachment. Basic Books.Google Scholar

Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss, Volume 3: Loss, sadness, and depression. Basic Books.Google Scholar

Burgess, E. O., Donnelly, D., Dillard, J., & Davis, R. (2001). Surfing for sex: Studying involuntary celibacy using the internet. Sexuality & Culture, 5, 5–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-001-1028-x CrossRef Google Scholar

Campbell, W. K., Bonacci, A. M., Shelton, J., Exline, J. J., & Bushman, B. J. (2004). Psychological entitlement: Interpersonal consequences and validation of a self-report measure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 83(1), 29–45. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa8301_04 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Carter-Sowell, A. R., Chen, Z., & Williams, K. D. (2008). Ostracism increases social susceptibility. Social Influence, 3(3), 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510802204868 CrossRef Google Scholar

Cassidy, J., Jones, J. D., & Shaver, P. R. (2013). Contributions of attachment theory and research: A framework for future research, translation, and policy. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4, Pt 2), 1415–1434. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000692 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Chabrol, H., Bronchain, J., Morgades Bamba, C. I., & Raynal, P. (2019). The Dark Tetrad and radicalization: Personality profiles in young women. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 12(3), 1–12. http://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2019.1646301.Google Scholar

Connell, R. W. (2005). Masculinities (2nd ed.). University of California Press.Google Scholar

Corner, E., Taylor, H., Van Der Vegt, I., et al. (2021) Reviewing the links between violent extremism and personality, personality disorders, and psychopathy. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 32(3), 378–407. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2021.1884736 CrossRef Google Scholar

Cottee, S. (2022). Incel (e)motives: Resentment, shame and revenge. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 44(2), 93–114 https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2020.1822589 CrossRef Google Scholar

Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70(6),1327–1343. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1327 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Downey, G., Khouri, H., & Feldman, S. (1997). Early interpersonal trauma and adult adjustment: The mediational role of rejection sensitivity. In Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. (Eds.), Rochester symposium on developmental psychopathology, Volume 8: The effects of trauma on the developmental process (pp. 85–114). University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar

Downey, G., Mugious, V., Ayduk, O., London, B., & Shoda, Y. (2004). Rejection sensitivity and the defensive motivational system: Insights from the startle response to rejection cues. Psychological Science, 15, 668–673. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00738.x CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dugas, M., Bélanger, J. J., Moyano, M., et al. (2016). The quest for significance motivates self-sacrifice. Motivation Science, 2(1), 15–32. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000030 CrossRef Google Scholar

Duspara, B., & Greitemeyer, T. (2017). The impact of dark tetrad traits on political orientation and extremism: An analysis in the course of a presidential election. Heliyon, 3(10), e00425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2017.e00425 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Echterhoff, G., Higgins, E. T., & Levine, J. M. (2009). Shared reality: Experiencing commonality with others’ inner states about the world. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 496–521. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01161.x CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Eisenberger, N. I. (2013). Why rejection hurts: The neuroscience of social pain. In DeWall, C. N. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of social exclusion (pp. 152–162). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398700.013.0015 CrossRef Google Scholar

Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003). Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. Science, 302(5643), 290–292. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089134 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Esses, V. M., Dovidio, J. F., Jackson, L. M., & Armstrong, T. L. (2001). The immigration dilemma: The role of perceived competition, ethnic prejudice, and national identity. Journal of Social Issues, 57(3), 389–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00220 CrossRef Google Scholar

Esses, V. M., Jackson, L. M., & Armstrong, T. L. (1998). Intergroup competition and attitudes toward immigrants and immigration: An instrumental model. Journal of Social Issues, 54(4), 699–724. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1998.tb01244.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Esses, V. M., Veenvliet, S., Hodson, G., & Milic, L. (2008). Justice, morality, and the dehumanization of refugees. Social Justice Research, 21, 4–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-007-0058-4 CrossRef Google Scholar

Feldman, S., & Downey, G. (1994). Rejection sensitivity as a mediator of the impact of childhood exposure to family violence on adult attachment behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 231–247. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400005976 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ferber, A. L., & Kimmel, M. S. (2008). The gendered face of terrorism. Sociology Compass, 2(3), 870–887. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2008.00096.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Ferrucati, F., & Bruno, F. (1981). Psychiatric aspects of terrorism in Italy. In Barak-Glanatz, I. & Huff, C. R. (Eds.), The mad, the bad and the different: Essays in honor of Simon Dinitz (pp. 199–213). Lexington Books.Google Scholar

Frederick, D. A., Shapiro, L. M., Williams, T. R., et al. (2017). Precarious manhood and muscularity: Effects of threatening men’s masculinity on reported strength and muscle dissatisfaction. Body Image, 22, 156–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.07.002 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Furnham, A., Richards, S. C., & Paulhus, D. L. (2013). The dark triad of personality: A 10 year review. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(3), 199–216. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12018 CrossRef Google Scholar

Ging, D. (2019). Alphas, betas, and incels: Theorizing the masculinities of the manosphere. Men and Masculinities, 22(4), 638–657. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/1097184X17706401 CrossRef Google Scholar

Golec de Zavala, A., & Lantos, D. (2020). Collective narcissism and its social consequences: The bad and the ugly. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29(3), 273–278. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420917703 CrossRef Google Scholar

Grubbs, J. B., & Exline, J. J. (2016). Trait entitlement: A cognitive-personality source of vulnerability to psychological distress. Psychological Bulletin, 142(11), 1204–1226. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/bul0000063 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hales, A. H., & Williams, K. D. (2020). Extremism leads to ostracism. Social Psychology, 51(3), 149–156. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1027/1864-9335/a000406 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hardin, C. D., & Higgins, E. T. (1996). Shared reality: How social verification makes the subjective objective. In Higgins, E. T. & Sorrentino, R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: The interpersonal context (pp. 28–84). Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Hartgerink, C. H., van Beest, I., Wicherts, J. M., & Williams, K. D. (2015). The ordinal effects of ostracism: A meta-analysis of 120 Cyberball studies. PLoS ONE, 10(5), e0127002. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127002 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hoffman, B., Ware, J., & Shapiro, E. (2020). Assessing the threat of incel violence. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 43(7), 565–587. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2020.1751459 CrossRef Google Scholar

Horgan, J. (2005). The psychology of terrorism. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203496961 Google Scholar

Horgan, J. (2008). From profiles to pathways and roots to routes: Perspectives from psychology on radicalization into terrorism. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 618(1), 80–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208317539 CrossRef Google Scholar

Horgan, J. G. (2014). The psychology of terrorism (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315882246 CrossRef Google Scholar

Horney, K. (1937). The neurotic personality of our time. Norton.Google Scholar

Huddy, L., Feldman, S., & Cassese, E. (2007). On the distinct political effects of anxiety and anger. In Neuman, W. R., Marcus, G. E., Crigler, A. N., & MacKuen, M. (Eds.), The affect effect: Dynamics of emotion in political thinking and behavior (pp. 202–230). University of Chicago Press.CrossRef Google Scholar

Jane, E. A. (2018). Systemic misogyny exposed: Translating rapeglish from the manosphere with a random rape threat generator. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 21, 661–680. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367877917734042 CrossRef Google Scholar

Jones, C., Trott, V., & Wright, S. (2020). Sluts and soyboys: MGTOW and the production of misogynistic online harassment. New Media & Society, 22(10), 1903–1921. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444819887141 CrossRef Google Scholar

Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2009). Machiavellianism. In Leary, M. R. & Hoyle, R. H. (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences in social behavior (pp. 93–108). Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Jost, J. T., Ledgerwood, A., & Hardin, C. D. (2008). Shared reality, system justification, and the relational basis of ideological beliefs. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 171–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00056.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Kalish, R., & Kimmel, M. (2010). Suicide by mass murder: Masculinity, aggrieved entitlement, and rampage school shootings. Health Sociology Review, 19(4), 451–464. https://doi.org/10.5172/hesr.2010.19.4.451 CrossRef Google Scholar

Kebbell, M. R., & Porter, L. (2012). An intelligence assessment framework for identifying individuals at risk of committing acts of violent extremism against the West. Security Journal, 25(3), 212–228. https://doi.org/10.1057/sj.2011.19 CrossRef Google Scholar

Kimmel, M. (2018). Healing from hate: How young men get into – and out of – violent extremism. University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520966086 CrossRef Google Scholar

Knapton, H., Renström, E. A., & Bäck, H. (2022). Outgroup exclusion, identity, and collective action in the Brexit context. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 52(9), 912–927. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12898 CrossRef Google Scholar

Krizan, Z., & Herlache, A. D. (2018). The narcissism spectrum model: A synthetic view of narcissistic personality. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 22(1), 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868316685018 CrossRef Google Scholar

Kruglanski, A. W., Bélanger, J. J., & Gunaratna, R. (2019). The three pillars of radicalization: Needs, narratives, and networks. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190851125.001.0001 CrossRef Google Scholar

Kruglanski, A. W., Chen, X., Dechesne, M., Fishman, S., & Orehek, E. (2009). Fully committed: Suicide bombers’ motivation and the quest for personal significance. Political Psychology, 30(3), 331–357. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2009.00698.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Kruglanski, A. W., & Fishman, S. (2009). Psychological factors in terrorism and counterterrorism: Individual, group, and organizational levels of analysis. Social Issues and Policy Review, 3(1), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-2409.2009.01009.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Kruglanski, A. W., Gelfand, M. J., Bélanger, J. J., et al. (2014). The psychology of radicalization and deradicalization: How significance quest impacts violent extremism. Political Psychology, 35, 69–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12163 CrossRef Google Scholar

Kruglanski, A. W., Pierro, A., Mannetti, L., & De Grada, E. (2006). Groups as epistemic providers: Need for closure and the unfolding of group-centrism. Psychological Review, 113, 84–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.113.1.84 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kruglanski, A. W., & Webber, D. (2014). The psychology of radicalization. Zeitschrift für Internationale Strafrechtsdogmatik 9, 379–388. https://zis-online.com/dat/artikel/2014_9_843.pdf Google Scholar

Lange, J., Redford, L., & Crusius, J. (2019). A status-seeking account of psychological entitlement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(7), 1113–1128. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0146167218808501 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Leary, M. R. (2013). Need to belong scale (NTBS). APA PsycTests.Google Scholar

Lerner, J. S., & Keltner, D. (2001). Fear, anger, and risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(1), 146–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.146 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Maslow, A. (1987). Motivation and personality (3rd ed.). Harper & Row.Google Scholar

Matsumoto, D., Hwang, H., & Frank, M. (2012). The role of emotion in predicting violence. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 81(1), 1.Google Scholar

McCauley, C., & Moskalenko, S. (2017). Understanding political radicalization: The two-pyramids model. American Psychologist, 72(3), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000062 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Međedović, J., & Knežević, G. (2019). Dark and peculiar. Journal of Individual Differences, 40(2), 92–103. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000280 CrossRef Google Scholar

Miller, J. D., Campbell, W. K., Young, D. L., et al. (2009). Examining the relations among narcissism, impulsivity, and self-defeating behaviors. Journal of Personality, 77(3), 761–794. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00564.x CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Moeller, S. J., Crocker, J., & Bushman, B. J. (2009). Creating hostility and conflict: Effects of entitlement and self-Image goals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(2), 448–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.11.005 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Moghaddam, F. M. (2005). The staircase to terrorism: A psychological exploration. American Psychologist, 60(2), 161–169. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.2.161 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Morgades-Bamba, C. I., Raynal, P., & Chabrol, H. (2018). Exploring the radicalization process in young women. Terrorism and Political Violence, 32(7), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2018.1481051 Google Scholar

Morris, K. L., Goldenberg, J., & Boyd, P. (2018). Women as animals, women as objects: Evidence for two forms of objectification. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(9), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218765739 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Moskalenko, S., & McCauley, C. (2009). Measuring political mobilization: The distinction between activism and radicalism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 21(2), 239–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550902765508 CrossRef Google Scholar

Ouwerkerk, J. W., Kerr, N. L., Gallucci, M., & van Lange, P. A. M. (2005). Avoiding the social death penalty: Ostracism and cooperation in social dilemmas. In Williams, K. D., Forgas, J. P., & von Hippel, W. (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 321–332). Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Paulhus, D. L., & Williams, K. M. (2002). The Dark Triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 36(6), 556–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-6566(02)00505-6 CrossRef Google Scholar

Pavlović, T., & Wertag, A. (2021). Proviolence as a mediator in the relationship between the dark personality traits and support for extremism. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110374 CrossRef Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M., Aßmann, E., Kiver, E., et al. (2022). Path-ways toward Jihadism in Western Europe: An empirical exploration of a comprehensive model of terrorist radicalization. Terrorism and Political Violence, 34(1), 48–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1663828 CrossRef Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M., & Lefort-Besnard, J. (2020). An attempt to identify predictive features among Islamist radicals: Evidence from machine learning. https://hal.science/hal-03042809/Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M., & Wetherell, G. (2019) Ostracism drives group moralization and extreme group behavior. The Journal of Social Psychology, 159(5), 518–530. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/00224545.2018.1512947 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Renström, E. A., Aspernäs, J., & Bäck, H. (2021). The young protester: The impact of, belongingness needs on political engagement. Journal of Youth Studies, 24(6), 781–798. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2020.1768229 CrossRef Google Scholar

Renström, E. A., & Bäck, H. (2021a). Anxiety, compassion and pride: How emotions elicited by the government’s handling of Covid-19 influences health-promoting behaviors. Psychologica Belgica, 61(1), 224–237. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.1053 CrossRef Google Scholar

Renström, E. A., & Bäck, H. (2021b). Emotions during the Covid-19 pandemic: Fear, anxiety and anger as mediators between threats and policy support and political actions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 51(8), 861–877. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12806 CrossRef Google Scholar

Renström, E. A., Holm, K., Plume, M., & Bäck, H. (2024). Becoming misogynistic. The role of entitlement and negative emotions in men’s adaption to misogynistic ideas and actions. [Manuscript in preparation].Google Scholar

Renström, E. A., Bäck, H., & Knapton, H. M. (2018). Conforming to collective action: The impact of rejection, personality and norms on participation in protest activity. Social Psychological Bulletin, 13(4), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.32872/spb.v13i4.26427 CrossRef Google Scholar

Riker, W. H., & Ordeshook, P. C. (1968). A theory of the calculus of voting. American Political Science Review, 62(1), 25–42. https://doi.org/10.2307/1953324 CrossRef Google Scholar

Romero-Canyas, R., Downey, G., Berenson, K., Ayduk, O., & Kang, N. J. (2010). Rejection sensitivity and the rejection–hostility link in romantic relationships. Journal of Personality, 78, 119–148. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00611.x CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Rose, A. J. (2002). Co-rumination in the friendships of girls and boys. Child Development, 73(6), 1830–1843. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00509 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Rose, A. J., Glick, G. C., Smith, R. L., Schwartz-Mette, R. A., & Borowski, S. K. (2017). Co-rumination exacerbates stress generation among adolescents with depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45(5), 985–995. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0205-1 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Silber, M. D., & Bhatt, A. K. (2007). Radicalization in the west: The homegrown threat. NYPD Intelligence Division.Google Scholar

Staub, E. (1989). The roots of evil: The origins of genocide and other group violence. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Stephan, W. G., Ybarra, O., & Morrison, K. R. (2009). Intergroup threat theory. In Nelson, T. D. (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (pp. 43–59). Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Stone, M. H., & Brucato, G. (2019). The new evil: Understanding the emergence of modern violent crime. Prometheus Books.Google Scholar

Vandello, J. A., & Bosson, J. K. (2013). Hard won and easily lost: A review and synthesis of theory and research on precarious manhood. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(2), 101–113. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0029826 CrossRef Google Scholar

Vandello, J. A., Bosson, J. K., Cohen, D., Burnaford, R. M., & Weaver, J. R. (2008). Precarious manhood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(6), 1325–1339. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0012453 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Weber, H. (2004). Explorations in the social construction of anger. Motivation and Emotion, 28, 197–219. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:MOEM.0000032314.29291.d4 CrossRef Google Scholar

Willer, R., Rogalin, C. L., Conlon, B., & Wojnowicz, M. T. (2013). Overdoing gender: A test of the masculine overcompensation thesis. American Journal of Sociology, 118(4), 980–1022. https://doi.org/10.1086/668417 CrossRef Google Scholar

Williams, K. D. (2007). Ostracism. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 425–452. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085641 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A temporal need–threat model. In Zanna, M. P. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 275–314). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)00406-1 Google Scholar

Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K. T., & Choi, W. (2000). Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the Internet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 748–762. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.748 CrossRef Google Scholar

Williams, K. D., & Zadro, L. (2005). Ostracism: The indiscriminate early detection system. In Williams, K. D., Forgas, J. P., & von Hippel, W. (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 19–34). Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Wolf, W., Levordashka, A., Ruff, J. R., et al. (2015). Ostracism Online: A social media ostracism paradigm. Behavior Research Methods, 47(2), 361–373. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-014-0475-x CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

References

Atran, S., Sheikh, H., & Gomez, A. (2014). Devoted actors sacrifice for close comrades and sacred cause. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(50), 17702–17703. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1420474111 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Backes, U., & Jesse, E. (1996). Politischer Extremismus in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland [Political extremism in the Federal Republic of Germany]. Schriftreihe Band (4. Ausg.). Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung.Google Scholar

Bahman, A. (2023). Freedom fighter or terrorist? International Law Research, 12(1), 76–86. https://doi.org/10.5539/ilr.v12n1p76 Google Scholar

Barner-Barry, C. (1986). Rob: Children’s tacit use of peer ostracism to control aggressive behavior. Ethology and Sociobiology, 7(3–4), 281–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/0162-3095(86)90054-3 CrossRef Google Scholar

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

BMI. (2019). Soziale Stadt [Social City]. Städtebauförderung. www.staedtebaufoerderung.info/DE/ProgrammeVor2020/SozialeStadt/sozialestadt_node.html Google Scholar

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss, Volume 1: Attachment. Basic Books.Google Scholar

Carter‐Sowell, A. R., Chen, Z., & Williams, K. D. (2008). Ostracism increases social susceptibility. Social Influence, 3(3), 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510802204868 CrossRef Google Scholar

Chermak, S., & Gruenewald, J. A. (2015). Laying a foundation for the criminological examination of right-wing, left-wing, and Al Qaeda-inspired extremism in the United States. Terrorism and Political Violence, 27(1), 133–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2014.975646 CrossRef Google Scholar

Dechesne, M. (2011). Deradicalization: Not soft, but strategic. Crime, Law and Social Change, 55(4), 287–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-011-9283-8 CrossRef Google Scholar

Della Porta, D. (1988). Recruitment processes in clandestine political organizations: Italian left-wing terrorism. International Social Movement Research, 1, 155–69.Google Scholar

DeWall, C. N., Twenge, J. M., Gitter, S. A., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). It’s the thought that counts: The role of hostile cognition in shaping aggressive responses to social exclusion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(1), 45–49. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013196 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dienstbühl, D. (2019). Extremismus und Radikalisierung: Kriminologisches Handbuch zur aktuellen Sicherheitslage [Extremism and radicalization: Criminological handbook on the current security situation]. Boorberg.CrossRef Google Scholar

Doosje, B., Loseman, A., & Van Den Bos, K. (2013). Determinants of radicalization of Islamic youth in the Netherlands: Personal uncertainty, perceived injustice, and perceived group threat. Journal of Social Issues, 69(3), 586–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12030 CrossRef Google Scholar

Doosje, B., Moghaddam, F. M., Kruglanski, A. W., et al. (2016). Terrorism, radicalization and de-radicalization. Current Opinion in Psychology, 11, 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.06.008 CrossRef Google Scholar

Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(6), 1327–1343. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1327 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fayant, M. P., Muller, D., Hartgerink, C. H. J., & Lantian, A. (2014). Is ostracism by a despised outgroup really hurtful? Social Psychology, 45(6), 489–494. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000209 CrossRef Google Scholar

Gómez, Á., Bélanger, J. J., Chinchilla, J., et al. (2021). Admiration for Islamist groups encourages self-sacrifice through identity fusion. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 8(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-00734-9 CrossRef Google Scholar

Gómez, Á., Morales, J. F., Hart, S., Vázquez, A., & SwannJr, W. B. (2011). Rejected and excluded forevermore, but even more devoted: Irrevocable ostracism intensifies loyalty to the group among identity-fused persons. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(12), 1574–1586. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211424580 CrossRef Google Scholar

Goodacre, R., & Zadro, L. (2010). O-Cam: A new paradigm for investigating the effects of ostracism. Behavior Research Methods, 42(3), 768–774. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.42.3.768 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Graf, J. (2016, July 22). “Er wurde zurückgewiesen – überall”: Wie Breivik zum Massenmörder wurde [He was rejected – everywhere”: How Breivik became a mass murderer]. n-tv. www.n-tv.de/politik/Wie-Breivik-zum-Massenmoerder-wurde-article18245816.html Google Scholar

Gruter, M., & Masters, R. D. (1986). Ostracism: A social and biological phenomenon. Ethnology and Sociobiology, 7, 149–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/0162-3095(86)90043-9 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hafez, M., & Mullins, C. (2015). The radicalization puzzle: A theoretical synthesis of empirical approaches to homegrown extremism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 38(11), 958–975. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2015.1051375 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hansen, H. E., Nemeth, S. C., & Mauslein, J. A. (2020). Ethnic political exclusion and terrorism: Analyzing the local conditions for violence. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 37(3), 280–300. https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894218782160 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hart, A. (2021). Right-wing waves: Applying the four waves theory to transnational and transhistorical right-wing threat trends. Terrorism and Political Violence, 35, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2020.1856818 CrossRef Google Scholar

HM Government (2011). PREVENT Strategy; PREVENT Programme. The Stationery Office Limited.Google Scholar

Hogg, M. A., & Adelman, J. (2013). Uncertainty-identity theory: Extreme groups, radical behavior, and authoritarian leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 69(3), 436–454. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12023 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hogg, M. A., Kruglanski, A., & Bos, K. (2013). Uncertainty and the roots of extremism. Journal of Social Issues, 69(3), 407–418. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12021 CrossRef Google Scholar

Horgan, J. (2008). From profiles to pathways and roots to routes: Perspectives from psychology on radicalization into terrorism. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 618(1), 80–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208317539 CrossRef Google Scholar

Horgan, J. G. (2014). The psychology of terrorism. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315882246 CrossRef Google Scholar

Jones, E. E., Carter-Sowell, A. R., Kelly, J. R., & Williams, K. D. (2009). “I’m out of the loop”: Ostracism through information exclusion. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12(2), 157–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1368430208101054 CrossRef Google Scholar

Knowles, M. L. (2013). Belonging regulation through the use of (para)social surrogates. In DeWall, C. N. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of social exclusion (pp. 275–285). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398700.013.0026 CrossRef Google Scholar

Koomen, W., & Van der Pligt, J. (2016). The psychology of radicalization and terrorism. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315771984 Google Scholar

Kruglanski, A. W., Bélanger, J. J., & Gunaratna, R. (Eds.) (2019). The three pillars of radicalization. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190851125.001.0001 CrossRef Google Scholar

Kruglanski, A. W., & Orehek, E. (2011). The role of the quest for personal significance in motivating terrorism. In Forgas, J., Kruglanski, A. & Williams, K. (Eds.), The psychology of social conflict and aggression (pp. 153–166). Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Kruglanski, A. W., Szumowska, E., Kopetz, C. H., Vallerand, R. J., & Pierro, A. (2021). On the psychology of extremism: How motivational imbalance breeds intemperance. Psychological Review, 128(2), 264–289. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000260 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

LaFree, G., Jiang, B., & Porter, L. C. (2020). Prison and violent political extremism in the United States. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 36(3), 473–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-019-09412-1 CrossRef Google Scholar

Laqueur, W. (1987). The age of terrorism. Little, Brown and Company.Google Scholar

Leary, M. R., Kowalski, R. M., Smith, L., & Phillips, S. (2003). Teasing, rejection, and violence: Case studies of the school shootings. Aggressive Behavior, 29(3), 202–214. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.10061 CrossRef Google Scholar

Lieberman, M. D., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2006). A pain by any other name (rejection, exclusion, ostracism) still hurts the same: The role of dorsal anterior cingulate cortex in social and physical pain. In Cacioppo, J. T., Visser, P. S. & Pickett, C. L. (Eds.), Social neuroscience: People thinking about thinking people (pp. 167–187). The MIT Press.Google Scholar

Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. Van Nostrand.Google Scholar

Moghaddam, F. M. (2005). The staircase to terrorism: A psychological exploration. American Psychologist, 60(2), 161–169. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.2.161 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Parker, T., & Sitter, N. (2016). The four horsemen of terrorism: It’s not waves, it’s strains. Terrorism and Political Violence, 28(2), 197–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1112277 CrossRef Google Scholar

Pfahl-Traughber, A. (2020). Der Einzeltäter ist ein einzelner Täter: Eine Analyse von Fällen und deren Kontext im Rechtsterrorismus [The lone perpetrator is a single offender: An analysis of cases and their context in right-wing terrorism]. Kriminalistik, 74(2), 74–80.Google Scholar

Pfahl-Traughber, A. (2023). Rechtsterrorismus als Terminus und Untersuchungskonzept [Right-wing terrorism as a term and concept of investigation]. Zeitschrift für Polizeiwissenschaft und polizeiliche Praxis, 20(2), 36–46.Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M., Aßmann, E., Kiver, B., et al. (2022). Pathways toward Jihadism in Western Europe: An empirical exploration of a comprehensive model of terrorist radicalization. Terrorism and Political Violence, 34(1), 48–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1663828 CrossRef Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M., & Mahr, L. A. (2022a). Regaining power: How feelings of exclusion during COVID-19 are associated with radicalism among critics of containment policies. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.952760 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pfundmair, M., & Mahr, L. A. (2022b). How group processes push excluded people into a radical mindset: An experimental investigation. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 26(6), 1289–1309. http://doi.org/10.1177/13684302221107782 CrossRef Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M., Pachurka, R., Späth, P., & Witiska, T. (2022, February). Social exclusion in the life of terrorists [Presentation]. Twenty-third Meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, San Francisco, CA, USA.Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M., Pachurka, R., Späth, P., & Witiska, T. (2024). Empirical evidence on the accumulation of social exclusion in the lives of terrorists [Manuscript submitted for publication]. Faculty of Intelligence, Federal University of Administrative Sciences.Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M., & Schmidt, H. (2019). Der Weg zur Radikalisierung und zurück: Deradikalisierung und seine psychologischen Mechanismen in der Praxis [The path to radicalization and back: Deradicalization and its psychological mechanisms in practice]. Praxis der Rechtspsychologie, 29(1), 23–39.Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M., & Wetherell, G. (2019). Ostracism drives group moralization and extreme group behavior. The Journal of Social Psychology, 159(5), 518–530. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2018.1512947 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pfundmair, M., Wood, N. R., Hales, A., & Wesselmann, E. D. (2022). How social exclusion makes radicalism flourish: A review of empirical evidence. Journal of Social Issues, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12520 CrossRef Google Scholar

Pretus, C., Hamid, N., Sheikh, H., et al. (2018). Neural and behavioral correlates of sacred values and vulnerability to violent extremism. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2462. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02462 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Przybilla, O. (2020a, November 26). Rechtsterrorismus in Cham: “Wie ein Soldat, der ins Leere schaut” [Right-wing terrorism in Cham: “Like a soldier looking into the void”]. Süddeutsche Zeitung. www.sueddeutsche.de/bayern/rechtsterror-cham-prozess-nuernberg-angeklagter-1.5128303 Google Scholar

Przybilla, O. (2020b, November 27). Prozess in Nürnberg: Zuhause in einer Welt aus Hass [Trial in Nuremberg: At home in a world of hate]. Süddeutsche Zeitung. www.sueddeutsche.de/bayern/rechtsterror-cham-prozess-nuernberg-plaedoyer-1.5129702 Google Scholar

Rapoport, D. C. (2001). The fourth wave: September 11 in the history of terrorism. Current History, 100(650), 419–429. https://doi.org/10.1525/curh.2001.100.650.419 CrossRef Google Scholar

Rapoport, D. C. (2012). The four waves of modern terrorism. In Horgan, J. & Braddock, K. (Eds.), Terrorism studies: A reader (pp. 3–30). Routledge.Google Scholar

Richards, A. (2015). From terrorism to “radicalization” to “extremism”: Counterterrorism imperative or loss of focus? International Affairs, 91(2), 371–380. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.12240 CrossRef Google Scholar

Sageman, M. (2004). Understanding terror networks. University of Pennsylvania Press. https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812206791 CrossRef Google Scholar

Sageman, M. (2009). Hofstad case study & the Blob Theory: Theoretical frames on pathways to violent radicalization, ARTIS Research and Risk Modeling.Google Scholar

Saucier, G., Akers, L. G., Shen-Miller, S., Kneževié, G., & Stankov, L. (2009). Patterns of thinking in militant extremism. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(3), 256–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01123 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Schuurman, B. (2020). Research on terrorism, 2007–2016: A review of data, methods, and authorship. Terrorism and Political Violence, 32(5), 1011–1026. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2018.1439023 CrossRef Google Scholar

Spaaij, R. (2010). The enigma of lone wolf terrorism: An assessment. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 33(9), 854–870. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2010.501426 CrossRef Google Scholar

Sunstein, C. R. (2001). Why they hate us: The role of social dynamics. Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy, 25, 429–440.Google Scholar

SwannJr, W. B., Gómez, A., Seyle, D. C., Morales, J., & Huici, C. (2009). Identity fusion: the interplay of personal and social identities in extreme group behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 995–1011. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013668 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Treistman, J. (2021). Social exclusion and political violence: Multilevel analysis of the justification of terrorism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2021.2007244 CrossRef Google Scholar

Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., & Stucke, T. S. (2001). If you can’t join them, beat them: Effects of social exclusion on aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(6), 1058–1069. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.6.1058 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Van Prooijen, J. W., & Krouwel, A. P. (2019). Psychological features of extreme political ideologies. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(2), 159–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721418817755 CrossRef Google Scholar

Webber, D., Chernikova, M., Kruglanski, A. W., et al. (2018). Deradicalizing detained terrorists. Political Psychology, 39(3), 539–556. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12428 CrossRef Google Scholar

Wesselmann, E. D., Grzybowski, M. R., Steakley-Freeman, D. M., et al. (2016). Social exclusion in everyday life. In Riva, P. & Eck, J. (Eds.) Social exclusion: Psychological approaches to understanding and reducing its impact (pp. 3–23). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33033-4_1 CrossRef Google Scholar

Wesselmann, E. D., Hales, A. H., Ren, D., & Williams, K. D. (2015). Ostracism threatens personal security: A temporal need threat framework. In Carroll, P. J., Arkin, R. M., & Wichman, A. L. (Eds.), The handbook of personal security (pp. 191–206). Routledge.Google Scholar

Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A temporal need‐threat model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 275–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)00406-1 CrossRef Google Scholar

Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K., & Choi, W. (2000). Cyberostracism: effects of being ignored over the Internet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 748–762. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.748 CrossRef Google Scholar

Wilner, A. S., & Dubouloz, C. J. (2010). Homegrown terrorism and transformative learning: An interdisciplinary approach to understanding radicalization. Global Change, Peace & Security, 22(1), 33–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/14781150903487956 CrossRef Google Scholar

Xu, M., Qiao, L., Qi, S., et al. (2018). Social exclusion weakens storage capacity and attentional filtering ability in visual working memory. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 13(1), 92–101. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsx139 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Yousafzai, M. (n.d.). Quotes. Moab Valley Multicultural Center. https://moabmc.org/malala-yousafzai Google Scholar

References

Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (1979). Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: Sadder but wiser? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108(4), 441–485. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.41.6.1129 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Anonymous #5 (1989). Notes of interest: White power. The Populist Observer, 36(Jan.), 17–19.Google Scholar

Applebaum, B. (2017). Comforting discomfort as complicity: White fragility and the pursuit of invulnerability. Hypatia, 32(4), 862–875. https://doi.org/10.1111/hypa.12352 CrossRef Google Scholar

Arango, T., Bogel-Burroughs, N., & Benner, K. (2019, August 3). Minutes before El Paso killing, hate-filled manifesto appears online. New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2019/08/03/us/patrick-crusius-el-paso-shooter-manifesto.html Google Scholar

Atkinson, D. R., Morten, G., & Sue, D. W. (1997). A minority identity development model. In Arnold, K. & King, I. C. (Eds.), College student development and academic life: Psychological, intellectual, social, and moral issues (pp. 193–205). Garland Publishing.Google Scholar

Bai, H., & Federico, C. M. (2021). White and minority demographic shifts, intergroup threat, and right-wing extremism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 94, 104–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104114 CrossRef Google Scholar

Beelmann, A. (2020). A social-developmental model of radicalization: A systematic integration of existing theories and empirical research. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 14(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.4119/ijcv-3778 Google Scholar

Beller, J., & Kröger, C. (2021). Religiosity and perceived religious discrimination as predictors of support for suicide attacks among Muslim Americans. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 27(4), 554–567. https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000460 CrossRef Google Scholar

Berbrier, M. (1998). White supremacists and the (pan‐)ethnic imperative: On “European‐Americans” and “White student unions.” Sociological Inquiry, 68(4), 498–516. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.1998.tb00482.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Berlet, C., & Vysotsky, S. (2006). Overview of US white supremacist groups. Journal of Political & Military Sociology, 34(1), 11–48. www.jstor.org/stable/45294185 Google Scholar

Blazak, R. (2001). White boys to terrorist men. American Behavioral Scientist, 44(6), 982–1000. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027640121956629 CrossRef Google Scholar

Blee, K. M. (1996). Becoming a racist: Women in contemporary Ku Klux Klan and neo-Nazi groups. Gender & Society, 10(6), 680–702. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124396010006002 CrossRef Google Scholar

Bond, S. (2023, April 25). How Tucker Carlson took fringe conspiracy theories to a mass audience. NPR Morning Edition. www.npr.org/2023/04/25/1171800317/how-tucker-carlsons-extremist-narratives-shaped-fox-news-and-conservative-politi Google Scholar

Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. Academic Press.Google Scholar

Brewer, M. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love and outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55(3), 429–444. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00126 CrossRef Google Scholar

Brewer, M. B. (2003). Optimal distinctiveness, social identity, and the self. In Leary, M. R. & Tangney, J. P. (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 480–491). Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is this “we”? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 71(1), 83–93.CrossRef Google Scholar

Brewer, M. B., & Pierce, K. P. (2005). Social identity complexity and outgroup tolerance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(3), 428–437. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271710 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Castle, T., Kristiansen, L., & Shifflett, L. (2020). White racial activism and paper terrorism: a case study in far-right propaganda. Deviant Behavior, 41(2), 252–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2018.1557380 CrossRef Google Scholar

Chou, E. Y., Parmar, B. L., & Galinsky, A. D. (2016). Economic insecurity increases physical pain. Psychological Science, 27(4), 443–454. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615625640 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cialdini, R. B., Trost, M. R., & Newsom, J. T. (1995). Preference for consistency: The development of a valid measure and the discovery of surprising behavioral implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(2), 318–328. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.2.318 CrossRef Google Scholar

Craig, M. A., & Richeson, J. A. (2014). On the precipice of a “majority-minority” America: Perceived status threat from the racial demographic shift affects White Americans’ political ideology. Psychological Science, 25(6), 1189–1197. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614527113 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cross, Jr., W. E., & Vandiver, B. J. (2001). Nigrescence theory and measurement: Introducing the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS). In Ponterotto, J. G., Casas, J. M., Suzuki, L. A., & Alexander, C. M. (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (2nd ed.; pp. 371–393). Sage.Google Scholar

Davey, J., & Ebner, J. (2019). “The great replacement”: The violent consequences of mainstreamed extremism. Institute for Strategic Dialogue, 7, 1–36.Google Scholar

Dean, K. K., Wentworth, G., & LeCompte, N. (2019). Social exclusion and perceived vulnerability to physical harm. Self & Identity, 18(1), 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1370389 CrossRef Google Scholar

Dixon, T. L., & Maddox, K. B. (2005). Skin tone, crime news, and social reality judgments: Priming the stereotype of the dark and dangerous black criminal. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35(8), 1555–1570. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02184.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Dobratz, B. A. (2001). The role of religion in the collective identity of the white racialist movement. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 40(2), 287–301. https://doi.org/10.1111/0021-8294.00056 CrossRef Google Scholar

Dobratz, B. A., & Shanks-Meile, S. L. (2000). The white separatist movement in the United States: “White power, white pride!” Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Donders, N. C., Correll, J., & Wittenbrink, B. (2008). Danger stereotypes predict racially biased attentional allocation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(5), 1328–1333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.04.002 CrossRef Google Scholar

Doosje, B., Moghaddam, F.M., Kruglanski, A.W., et al. (2016). Terrorism, radicalization and de-radicalization. Current Opinion in Psychology, 11, 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.06.008 CrossRef Google Scholar

Ekman, M. (2022). The great replacement: Strategic mainstreaming of far-right conspiracy claims. Convergence, 28(4), 1127–1143. https://doi.org/10.1177/13548565221091983 CrossRef Google Scholar

Farrington, B. (2022, January 18). Florida could shield whites from “discomfort” of racist past. Associated Press. https://apnews.com/article/business-florida-lawsuits-ron-desantis-racial-injustice-3ec10492b7421543315acf4491813c1b Google Scholar

Ferber, A. L. (2012). The culture of privilege: Color‐blindness, postfeminism, and christonormativity. Journal of Social Issues, 68(1), 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01736.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press.CrossRef Google Scholar

Ford, B. Q., Green, D. J., & Gross, J. J. (2022). White fragility: An emotion regulation perspective. American Psychologist, 77(4), 510–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000968 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Forgas, J. P., & Williams, K. D. (2002). The social self: Introduction and overview. In Forgas, J. P. & Williams, K. D. (Eds.), The social self: Cognitive, interpersonal, and intergroup perspectives (pp. 1–18). Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Germer, C. K., & Neff, K. D. (2013). Self‐compassion in clinical practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(8), 856–867. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22021 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Graupmann, V. (2018). Show me what threatens you, and I can tell who you are: Perception of threat and the self. Self & Identity, 17(4), 407–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1412346 CrossRef Google Scholar

Graupmann, V., Frey, D., & Streicher, B. (2013). The self-fortress: motivational responses to threats to the self. In Hunter, B. O. & Romero, T. J. (Eds.), Psychology of threat (pp. 1–29). Nova Science Publishers.Google Scholar

Graupmann, V., Vazquez, K., Vazquez, M., & Dulaney, E. (2023). Comfort with the uncomfortable: Using an anti-racist framework to mitigate threat to the self. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar

Greenberg, J., Schimel, J., Martens, A., Solomon, S., & Pyszcznyski, T. (2001). Sympathy for the devil: Evidence that reminding Whites of their mortality promotes more favorable reactions to White racists. Motivation & Emotion, 25(2), 113–133. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010613909207 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hales, A. H., & Williams, K. D. (2018) Marginalized individuals and extremism: The role of ostracism in openness to extreme groups. Journal of Social Issues, 74(1), 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12257 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hales, A. H., & Williams, K. D. (2020) Extremism leads to ostracism. Social Psychology, 51(3), 149–156. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000406 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hardiman, R., & Keehn, M. (2011). White identity development revisited: Listening to White students. In Wijeyesinghe, C. & Jackson, B. W. (Eds.), New perspectives on racial identity development: Integrating emerging frameworks (2nd ed.; pp. 121–137). New York University Press.Google Scholar

Harvey, J. (2022, July 19). Tucker Carlson all out embraces “great replacement” theory. Huffington Post. www.huffpost.com/entry/tucker-carlson-great-replacement_n_62d76c96e4b081f3a8f87d45 Google Scholar

Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R. (1995). A life-span theory of control. Psychological Review, 102(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.284 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Helms, J. E. (1997). Toward a model of white racial identity development. In Arnold, K. & King, I. C. (Eds.), College student development and academic life: Psychological, intellectual, social, and moral issues (pp. 207–224). Garland Publishing.Google Scholar

Hoffman, B. (1995). “Holy terror”: The implications of terrorism motivated by a religious imperative. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 18(4), 271–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/10576109508435985 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hogg, M. A. (2014). From Uncertainty to Extremism: Social Categorization and Identity Processes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), 338–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414540168 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hughes, R. T. (2018). Myths America lives by: White supremacy and the stories that give us meaning (2nd ed.). University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar

Ipsos (2023, June 15). Majority of Americans believe racism adds barriers to people of color’s success. www.ipsos.com/en-us/majority-americans-believe-racism-adds-barriers-people-colors-success Google Scholar

Iyer, A. (2022). Understanding advantaged groups’ opposition to diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) policies: The role of perceived threat. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 16(5), e12666. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12666 CrossRef Google Scholar

Jaffe, A., & Siemaszko, C. (2016, June 23). Outrage as Trump inspired candidate wants to “Make America White Again.” NBC News. www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/outrage-trump-inspired-congressional-candidate-wants-make-america-white-again-n597916 Google Scholar

Jasko, K., LaFree, G., & Kruglanski, A. (2017). Quest for significance and violent extremism: The case of domestic radicalization. Political Psychology, 38(5), 815–831.CrossRef Google Scholar

Kachanoff, F. J., Kteily, N., & Gray, K. (2022). Equating silence with violence: When white Americans feel threatened by anti-racist messages. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 102, 104348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104348 CrossRef Google Scholar

Katersky, A., & Hutchinson, B. (2022, October 18). Buffalo mass shooting suspect ‘radicalized’ by fringe social media: NY attorney general. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/buffalo-mass-shooting-suspect-radicalized-fringe-social-media/story?id=91670651 Google Scholar

Kay, A. C., & Eibach, R. P. (2013). Compensatory control and its implications for ideological extremism. Journal of Social Issues, 69(3), 564–585. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12029 CrossRef Google Scholar

Kendi, I. X. (2019). How to be an antiracist. One World.Google Scholar

King’s College London. (2023, June 13). “Great replacement theory” and conspiracies about 15-minute cities, cost of living and digital currencies said to be definitely or probably true by one in three in UK. King’s College London News Centre. www.kcl.ac.uk/news/great-replacement-theory-and-conspiracies-about-15-minute-cities-cost-of-living-and-digital-currencies-said-to-be-definitely-or-probably-true-by-one-in-three-in-uk Google Scholar

Kumashiro, M., Rusbult, C. E., & Finkel, E. J. (2008). Navigating personal and relational concerns: The quest for equilibrium. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 95(1), 94–110. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.94 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Leary, M. R. (1999). Making sense of self-esteem. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8(1), 32–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00008 CrossRef Google Scholar

Long, S. (2023). White identity, Donald Trump, and the mobilization of extremism. Politics, Groups, & Identities, 11(3), 638–666. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2022.2025868 CrossRef Google Scholar

MacBeth, A., & Gumley, A. (2012). Exploring compassion: A meta-analysis of the association between self-compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(6), 545–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.06.003 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (2010). Cultures and selves: A cycle of mutual constitution. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(4), 420–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610375557 CrossRef Google Scholar

Michel, C. (2021, April 12). Fox News star Tucker Carlson’s “great replacement” segment used a new frame for an old fear. NBC News. www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/tucker-carlson-s-great-replacement-fox-news-segment-uses-newer-ncna1263880 Google Scholar

Neff, K. D. (2011). Self‐compassion, self‐esteem, and well‐being. Social & Personality Psychology Compass, 5(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00330.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Neidig, H., & Beitsch, R. (2021, May 12). Biden officials testify that white supremacists are greatest domestic security threat. The Hill. https://thehill.com/policy/national-security/553161-biden-officials-testify-that-white-supremacists-are-greatest/Google Scholar

Neville, H. A., Awad, G. H., Brooks, J. E., Flores, M. P., & Bluemel, J. (2013). Color-blind racial ideology: Theory, training, and measurement implications in psychology. American Psychologist, 68(6), 455–466. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033282 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

New York Times (2022, April 20). Inside the apocalyptic worldview of ‘Tucker Carlson Tonight’. www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/04/30/us/tucker-carlson-tonight.html Google Scholar

NPR 1A (2023, April 26). Tucker Carlson is out at Fox. What happened? www.npr.org/2023/04/25/1171951112/tucker-carlson-is-out-at-fox-what-happened Google Scholar

Obaidi, M., Bergh, R., Akrami, N., & Anjum, G. (2019). Group-based relative deprivation explains endorsement of extremism among Western-born Muslims. Psychological Science, 30(4), 596–605. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619834879 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Obaidi, M., Kunst, J., Ozer, S., & Kimel, S. Y. (2022). The “great replacement” conspiracy: How the perceived ousting of whites can evoke violent extremism and Islamophobia. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 25(7), 1675–1695. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302211028293 CrossRef Google Scholar

Ornstein, M. (director/producer), & Ornstein, N. (producer). (2016). Accidental courtesy: Daryl Davis, race, and America. First Run Features.Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M. (2019). Ostracism promotes a terroristic mindset. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism & Political Aggression, 11(2), 134–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2018.1443965 CrossRef Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M., Aßmann, E., Kiver, E., et al. (2022) Pathways toward Jihadism in Western Europe: an empirical exploration of a comprehensive model of terrorist radicalization. Terrorism & Political Violence, 34(1), 48–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1663828 CrossRef Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M., & Mahr, L. A. (2022b). How group processes push excluded people into a radical mindset: An experimental investigation. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302221107782 CrossRef Google Scholar

Phinney, J. S. (1996). When we talk about American ethnic groups, what do we mean? American Psychologist, 51(9), 918–927. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.51.9.918 CrossRef Google Scholar

Picciolini, C. (2017a). White American youth: My descent into America’s most violent hate movement – and how I got out. Hachette Book.Google Scholar

Picciolini, C. (2017b, November). My descent into America’s neo-Nazi movement. TEDxMileHigh. www.ted.com/talks/christian_picciolini_my_descent_into_america_s_neo_nazi_movement_and_how_i_got_out Google Scholar

Reid, S. A., & Hogg, M. A. (2005). Uncertainty reduction, self-enhancement, and ingroup identification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(6), 804–817. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271708 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Reyna, C., Bellovary, A., & Harris, K. (2022). The psychology of white nationalism: Ambivalence towards a changing America. Social Issues & Policy Review, 16(1), 79–124.CrossRef Google Scholar

Riva, P., Wirth, J. H., & Williams, K. D. (2011). The consequences of pain: The social and physical pain overlap on psychological responses. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41(6), 681–687. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.837 CrossRef Google Scholar

Roccas, S., & Brewer, M. B. (2002). Social identity complexity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(2), 88–106. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0602_01 CrossRef Google Scholar

Rockwell, G. L. (1972). White power. Ragnarok Press.Google Scholar

Romero, A. J., Edwards, L. M., Fryberg, S. A., & Orduña, M. (2014). Resilience to discrimination stress across ethnic identity stages of development. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12192 CrossRef Google Scholar

Rose, S. (2022). A deadly ideology: How the “great replacement theory” went mainstream. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jun/08/a-deadly-ideology-how-the-great-replacement-theory-went-mainstream Google Scholar

Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J. R., & Snyder, S. S. (1982). Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 42(1), 5–37. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.5 CrossRef Google Scholar

Rowe, W., Bennett, S. K., & Atkinson, D. R. (1994). White racial identity models: A critique and alternative proposal. The Counseling Psychologist, 22(1), 129–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000094221009 CrossRef Google Scholar

Ruiz, A. S. (1990). Ethnic identity: Crisis and resolution. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 18(1), 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.1990.tb00434.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Sabnani, H. B., Ponterotto, J. G., & Borodovsky, L. G. (1991). White racial identity development and cross-cultural counselor training: A stage model. The Counseling Psychologist, 19(1), 76–102. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000091191007 CrossRef Google Scholar

Schafer, J. A., Mullins, C. W., & Box, S. (2014). Awakenings: The emergence of white supremacist ideologies. Deviant Behavior, 35(3), 173–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2013.834755 CrossRef Google Scholar

Schwarzbaum, S. E., & Thomas, A. J. (2013). Dimensions of multicultural counseling: A life story approach. Sage.Google Scholar

Scott, D. A., & Robinson, T. L. (2001). White male identity development: The key model. Journal of Counseling & Development, 79(4), 415–421. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2001.tb01988.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Scully, R. (2022, January 20). Bill to ban lessons making white students feel “discomfort” advances in Florida Senate. The Hill. https://thehill.com/homenews/state-watch/590554-bill-to-ban-lessons-making-white-students-feel-discomfort-advances-in/Google Scholar

Sedikides, C., & Brewer, M. B. (2001). Individual self, relational self, and collective self: Partners, opponents, or strangers? In Sedikides, C. & Brewer, M. B. (Eds.), Individual self, relational self, cognitive self (pp. 1–4). Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J. N., Rowley, S. A., & Chavous, T. M. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality & Social Psychology Review, 2(1), 18–39. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_2 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Smedley, A., & Smedley, B. D. (2005). Race as biology is fiction, racism as a social problem is real: Anthropological and historical perspectives on the social construction of race. American Psychologist, 60(1), 16–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.1.16 CrossRef Google Scholar

Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (1991). A terror management theory of social behavior: The psychological functions of self-esteem and cultural worldviews. In Zanna, M. P. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 24, pp. 93–159). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60328-7 Google Scholar

Spoor, J., & Williams, K. D. (2007). The evolution of an ostracism detection system. In Forgas, J. P., Haselton, M., & von Hippel, W. (Eds.), The evolution of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and social cognition (pp. 279–292). Psychology Press.Google Scholar

SS Action Group (n. d.). Who we are and what we are all about. Aryans Awake!Google Scholar

Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In Berkowitz, L. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 261–302). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60229-4 Google Scholar

Sullivan, E., & Benner, K. (2021, May 12). Top law enforcement officials say the biggest domestic terror threat comes from white supremacists. New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2021/05/12/us/politics/domestic-terror-white-supremacists.html Google Scholar

Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 68(2), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.199 CrossRef Google Scholar

Tajfel, H. (Ed.). (1978). Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. Academic Press.Google Scholar

Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: a social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 193–210. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.193 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

The cause continues in the name of Ian Stuart. (1994). Blood and Honor, 16. No page numbers.Google Scholar

Tourish, D., & Wohlforth, T. (2000). Prophets of the apocalypse: White supremacy and the theology of Christian identity. Cultic Studies Journal, 17(1), 15–41. www.culteducation.com/group/871-christian-identity/3692-prophets-of-the-apocalypse-white-supremacy-and-the-theology-of-christian-identity.html Google Scholar

Tucker Carlson [@TuckerCarlson] (2022a, July 19). The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 turned out to be one of the most significant pieces of legislation ever … [Video attached] [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/TuckerCarlson/status/1549576493189283846 Google Scholar

Tucker Carlson [@TuckerCarlson] (2022b, July 19). This is too much change. Throw in millions of new people who have no connection to America ̶ who broke our … [Video attached] [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/TuckerCarlson/status/1549576493189283846 Google Scholar

US Department of Justice (2021, August). 2020 Hate Crime Statistics. www.justice.gov/crs/highlights/2020-hate-crimes-statistics Google Scholar

US Department of Justice (2023, July 19). 2021 Hate Crime Statistics. www.justice.gov/hatecrimes/hate-crime-statistics Google Scholar

Vysotsky, S., & McCarthy, A. L. (2017). Normalizing cyberracism: A neutralization theory analysis. Journal of Crime and Justice, 40(4), 446–461. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2015.1133314 CrossRef Google Scholar

Walters, J., & Chang, A. (2021, September 8). Far-right terror poses bigger threat to US than Islamist extremism post-9/11. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/sep/08/post-911-domestic-terror Google Scholar

Wesselmann, E. D., Nairne, J. S., & Williams, K. D. (2012). An evolutionary social psychological approach to studying the effects of ostracism. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, & Cultural Psychology, 6, 308–327. http://doi.org/10.1037/h0099249 CrossRef Google Scholar

Wilkins, V. M., & Wenger, J. B. (2014). Belief in a just world and attitudes toward affirmative action. Policy Studies Journal, 42(3), 325–343. https://doi.org/10.1111/psj.12063 CrossRef Google Scholar

Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: Effects of being excluded and ignored. In Zanna, M. P. (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 41, pp. 275–314). Academic Press.Google Scholar

Wilson, J. (2020, March 18). White nationalist hate groups have grown 55% in Trump era, report finds. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/18/white-nationalist-hate-groups-southern-poverty-law-center Google Scholar

Yousef, O. (2022, May 17). The “great replacement” conspiracy theory isn’t fringe anymore, it’s mainstream. NPR.Google Scholar

References

ADL (2023). Murder and extremism in the United States in 2022. American Defamation League Center on Extremism. www.adl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/2023-02/Murder-and-Extremism-in-the-United-States-in-2022.pdf Google Scholar

Ashour, O. (2010). Online de-radicalization? Countering violent extremist narratives. Perspectives on Terrorism, 4(6), 15–19.Google Scholar

Back, M. D., Küfner, A. C. P., Dufner, M., et al. (2013). Narcissistic admiration and rivalry: Disentangling the bright and dark sides of narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105(6), 1013–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034431 CrossRef Google Scholar

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motive. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529.CrossRef Google Scholar

Beauchamp, Z. (2019, April 16). The rise of incels: How a support group for the dateless became a violent internet subculture. Vox. www.vox.com/the-highlight/2019/4/16/18287446/incel-definition-reddit Google Scholar

Beck, A. T. (Ed.). (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression (13. Print). Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Besta, T., Mattingly, B., & Błażek, M. (2016). When membership gives strength to act: Inclusion of the group into the self and feeling of personal agency. The Journal of Social Psychology, 156(1), 56–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2015.1053838 CrossRef Google Scholar

Bosson, J. K., Rousis, G. J., & Felig, R. N. (2022). Curvilinear sexism and its links to men’s perceived mate value. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 48(4), 516–533. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211009726 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bosson, J. K., & Swann, W. B., Jr. (1999). Self-liking, self-competence, and the quest for self-verification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(10), 1230–1241. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167299258005 CrossRef Google Scholar

Broyd, J., Boniface, L., Parsons, D., Murphy, D., & Hafferty, J. D. (2022). Incels, violence and mental disorder: A narrative review with recommendations for best practice in risk assessment and clinical intervention. BJPsych Advances, 26(9), 254–264. https://doi.org/10.1192/bja.2022.15 Google Scholar

CCDH Quant Lab (2022). The Incelosphere: Exposing pathways into incel communities and the harms they pose to women and children (pp. 1–48). Center for Countering Digital Hate. https://counterhate.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/CCDH-The-Incelosphere.pdf Google Scholar

Champion, A. R. (2021). Exploring the radicalization pipeline on YouTube. The Journal of Intelligence, Conflict, and Warfare, 4(2), 122–126. https://doi.org/10.21810/jicw.v4i2.3754 CrossRef Google Scholar

Costello, W., Rolon, V., Thomas, A. G., & Schmitt, D. (2022). Levels of well-being among men who are incel (involuntarily celibate). Evolutionary Psychological Science, 8(4), 375–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-022-00336-x CrossRef Google Scholar

Cottee, S. (2020). Incel Imotives: Resentment, shame and revenge. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 44(2), 93–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2020.1822589 CrossRef Google Scholar

Crocker, J., & Luhtanen, R. (1990). Collective self-esteem and ingroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(1), 60–67. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.1.60 CrossRef Google Scholar

Crocker, J., Voelkl, K., Testa, M., & Major, B. (1991). Social stigma: The affective consequences of attributional ambiguity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(2), 218–228. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.2.218 CrossRef Google Scholar

Daly, S. E., & Reed, S. M. (2022). “I think most of society hates us”: A qualitative thematic analysis of interviews with incels. Sex Roles, 86(1–2), 14–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-021-01250-5 CrossRef Google Scholar

De La Ronde, C., & Swann, W. B. (1998). Partner verification: Restoring shattered images of our intimates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(2), 374–382. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.2.374 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dion, K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24(3), 285–290. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0033731 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Donath, J. S. (2002). Identity and deception in the virtual community. In Kollock, P. & Smith, M. (Eds.), Communities in cyberspace (pp. 37–68). Routledge.Google Scholar

Downey, G., Feldman, S., Khuri, J., & Friedman, S. (1994). Maltreatment and childhood depression. In Reynolds, W. M. & Johnston, H. F. (Eds.), Handbook of depression in children and adolescents (pp. 481–508). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-1510-8_22 CrossRef Google Scholar

Dusek, J. B., & Joseph, G. (1983). The bases of teacher expectancies: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(3), 327–346. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.75.3.327 CrossRef Google Scholar

Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54(6), 408–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.6.408 CrossRef Google Scholar

Feldman, S., & Downey, G. (1994). Rejection sensitivity as a mediator of the impact of childhood exposure to family violence on adult attachment behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 6(1), 231–247. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400005976 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fredman, L. A., Bastian, B., & Swann, W. B. (2017). God or country? Fusion with Judaism predicts desire for retaliation following Palestinian stabbing intifada. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(8), 882–887. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617693059 CrossRef Google Scholar

Fredman, L. A., Buhrmester, M. D., Gomez, A., et al. (2015). Identity fusion, extreme pro-group behavior, and the path to defusion: Identity fusion and extreme behavior. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(9), 468–480. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12193 CrossRef Google Scholar

Ging, D. (2019). Alphas, betas, and incels: Theorizing the masculinities of the manosphere. Men and Masculinities, 22(4), 638–657. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X17706401 CrossRef Google Scholar

Ging, D., & Murphy, S. (2021, September 15). Tracking the pilling pipeline: Limitations, challenges and a call for new methodological frameworks in incel and manosphere research. AoIR Selected Papers of Internet Research. The 22nd Annual Conference of the Association of Internet Researchers. https://doi.org/10.5210/spir.v2021i0.12174 CrossRef Google Scholar

Glace, A. M., Dover, T. L., & Zatkin, J. G. (2021). Taking the black pill: An empirical analysis of the “incel.” Psychology of Men & Masculinities, 22(2), 288–297. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000328 CrossRef Google Scholar

Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491 CrossRef Google Scholar

Gómez, Á., Chinchilla, J., Vázquez, A., et al. (2020). Recent advances, misconceptions, untested assumptions, and future research agenda for identity fusion theory. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 14(6), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12531 CrossRef Google Scholar

Gómez, Á., Morales, J. F., Hart, S., Vázquez, A., & Swann, W. B. (2011). Rejected and excluded forevermore, but even more devoted: Irrevocable ostracism intensifies loyalty to the group among identity-fused persons. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(12), 1574–1586. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211424580 CrossRef Google Scholar

Gómez, Á., Seyle, D. C., Huici, C., & Swann, W. B. (2009). Can self-verification strivings fully transcend the self–other barrier? Seeking verification of ingroup identities. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(6), 1021–1044. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016358 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gómez, Á., Vázquez, A., & Swann, W. B. (in press). Feeling understood fosters identity fusion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.Google Scholar

Gómez, Á., Vázquez, A., López-Rodríguez, L., et al. (2019). Why people abandon groups: Degrading relational vs collective ties uniquely impacts identity fusion and identification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 85, 103853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2019.103853 CrossRef Google Scholar

Gothard, K., Dewhurst, D. R., Minot, J. R., et al. (2021). The incel lexicon: Deciphering the emergent cryptolect of a global misogynistic community (arXiv:2105.12006). arXiv. http://arxiv.org/abs/2105.12006 Google Scholar

Hart, G., & Huber, A. R. (2023). Five things we need to learn about incel extremism: Issues, challenges and avenues for fresh research. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2023.2195067 CrossRef Google Scholar

Hintz, E. A., & Baker, J. T. (2021). A performative face theory analysis of online facework by the formerly involuntarily celibate. International Journal of Communication, 15, 3047–3066.Google Scholar

Hodapp, C. (2017). Men’s rights, gender, and social media. Lexington Books.Google Scholar

Hogg, M. A., & Williams, K. D. (2000). From I to we: Social identity and the collective self. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 4(1), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2699.4.1.81 CrossRef Google Scholar

Huang, C. L., & Yang, S. C. (2013). A study of online misrepresentation, self-disclosure, cyber-relationship motives, and loneliness among teenagers in Taiwan. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 48(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.2190/EC.48.1.a CrossRef Google Scholar

Imhoff, R., & Lamberty, P. K. (2017). Too special to be duped: Need for uniqueness motivates conspiracy beliefs: Need for uniqueness and conspiracies. European Journal of Social Psychology, 47(6), 724–734. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2265 CrossRef Google Scholar

incels.is (2018). Which status would you prefer women to have in society? Incels.Is – Involuntary Celibate. https://incels.is/threads/which-status-would-you-prefer-women-to-have-in-society Google Scholar

incels.is (2023, March 9). I’ve been bullied for failing to get a lady. Incels.Is – Involuntary Celibate. https://incels.is/threads/ive-been-bullied-for-failing-to-get-a-lady.467004/Google Scholar

Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 480–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kwang, T., & Swann, W. B. (2010). Do people embrace praise even when they feel unworthy? A review of critical tests of self-enhancement versus self-verification. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(3), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310365876 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Langlois, J. H., Kalakanis, L., Rubenstein, A. J., et al. (2000). Maxims or myths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 126(3), 390–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.390 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Martel, F. A., Buhrmester, M., Gómez, A., Vázquez, A., & Swann, W. B. (2021). Why true believers make the ultimate sacrifice: Sacred values, moral convictions, or identity fusion? Frontiers in Psychology, 12(779120), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.779120 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Maxwell, D., Robinson, S. R., Williams, J. R., & Keaton, C. (2020). “A short story of a lonely guy”: A qualitative thematic analysis of involuntary celibacy using reddit.Sexuality & Culture, 24(6), 1852–1874. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-020-09724-6 CrossRef Google Scholar

Moonshot (2020). Incels: A guide to symbols and terminology (p. 19). https://moonshotteam.com/resource/incels-a-guide-to-symbols-and-terminology/Google Scholar

Morf, C. C., & Rhodewalt, F. (2001). Unraveling the paradoxes of narcissism: A dynamic self-regulatory processing model. Psychological Inquiry, 12(4), 177–196. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1204_1 CrossRef Google Scholar

Moskalenko, S., González, J. F.-G., Kates, N., & Morton, J. (2022). Incel ideology, radicalization and mental health: A survey study. The Journal of Intelligence, Conflict, and Warfare, 4(3), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.21810/jicw.v4i3.3817 CrossRef Google Scholar

Mountford, J. (2018). Topic modeling the red pill. Social Sciences, 7(42), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci7030042 CrossRef Google Scholar

Neff, L. A., & Karney, B. R. (2005). To know you is to love you: The implications of global adoration and specific accuracy for marital relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(3), 480–497. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.480 CrossRef Google Scholar

Newson, M., Khurana, R., Cazorla, F., & Van Mulukom, V. (2021). “I get high with a little help from my friends”: How raves can invoke identity fusion and lasting co-operation via transformative experiences. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(719596), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.719596 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

O’Donnell, C., & Shor, E. (2022). “This is a political movement, friend”: Why “incels” support violence. The British Journal of Sociology, 73(2), 336–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12923 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

O’Donnell, J. (2019). Militant meninism: The militaristic discourse of Gamergate and Men’s Rights Activism. Media, Culture & Society, 42(5), 654–674. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443719876624 CrossRef Google Scholar

Pfundmair, M., Wood, N. R., Hales, A., & Wesselmann, E. D. (2022). How social exclusion makes radicalism flourish: A review of empirical evidence. Journal of Social Issues. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12520 CrossRef Google Scholar

Piketty, T. (2014). Capital in the twenty-first century (A. Goldhammer, Trans.). Belknap Press.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Piketty, T. (2020). Capital and ideology (A. Goldhammer, Trans.). Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Pinel, E. C. (1999). Stigma consciousness: The psychological legacy of social stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(1), 114–128. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.1.114 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Rieger, D., Kümpel, A. S., Wich, M., Kiening, T., & Groh, G. (2021). Assessing the extent and types of hate speech in fringe communities: A case study of alt-right communities on 8chan, 4chan, and Reddit. Social Media + Society, 7(4), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211052906 Google Scholar

Robards, B., & Lincoln, S. (2017). Uncovering longitudinal life narratives: Scrolling back on Facebook. Qualitative Research, 17(6), 715–730. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794117700707 CrossRef Google Scholar

Rousis, G. J., Martel, F. A., Bosson, J. K., & Swann, W. B. (2023). Behind the blackpill: Self-verification and identity fusion predict endorsement of violence against women among self-identified incels. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672231166481 CrossRef Google Scholar

Sageman, M. (2021). The implication of terrorism’s extremely low base rate. Terrorism and Political Violence, 33(2), 302–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2021.1880226 CrossRef Google Scholar

Schöpfer, C., Abatista, A. G. F., Fuhrer, J., & Cova, F. (2023). “Where there are villains, there will be heroes”: Belief in conspiracy theories as an existential tool to fulfill need for meaning. Personality and Individual Differences, 200, 111900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111900 CrossRef Google Scholar

Snyder, C. R., & Fromkin, H. L. (1977). Abnormality as a positive characteristic: The development and validation of a scale measuring need for uniqueness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86(5), 518–527. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.86.5.518 CrossRef Google Scholar

Speckhard, A., & Ellenberg, M. (2022). Self-reported psychiatric disorder and perceived psychological symptom rates among involuntary celibates (incels) and their perceptions of mental health treatment. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2022.2029933 CrossRef Google Scholar

Speckhard, A., Ellenberg, M., Morton, J., & Ash, A. (2021). Involuntary celibates’ experiences of and grievance over sexual exclusion and the potential threat of violence among those active in an online incel forum. Journal of Strategic Security, 14(2), 89–121. https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.14.2.1910 CrossRef Google Scholar

Swann, W. B., Jr. (1983). Self-verification: Bringing social reality into harmony with the self. In Suls, J. & Greenwald, A. G. (Eds.), Social psychological perspectives on the self (2nd ed., pp. 33–66). Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Swann, W. B., Jr. (2012). Self-verification theory. In Van Lange, P., Kruglanski, A., & Higgins, E., Handbook of theories of social psychology (pp. 23–42). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n27 CrossRef Google Scholar

Swann, W. B., Jr., & Buhrmester, M. D. (2015). Identity fusion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(1), 52–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414551363 CrossRef Google Scholar

Swann, W. B., Jr., Buhrmester, M. D., Gómez, A., et al. (2014). What makes a group worth dying for? Identity fusion fosters perception of familial ties, promoting self-sacrifice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(6), 912–926. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036089 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Swann, W. B., Jr., Gómez, Á., Seyle, D. C., Morales, J. F., & Huici, C. (2009). Identity fusion: The interplay of personal and social identities in extreme group behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 995–1011. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013668 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Swann, W. B., Jr., Hixon, J. G., & De La Ronde, C. (1992). Embracing the bitter “truth”: Negative self-concepts and marital commitment. Psychological Science, 3(2), 118–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00010.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Swann, W. B., Jr., Hixon, J. G., Stein-Seroussi, A., & Gilbert, D. T. (1990). The fleeting gleam of praise: Cognitive processes underlying behavioral reactions to self-relevant feedback. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(1), 17–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.1.17 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Swann, W. B., Jr., Jetten, J., Gómez, Á., Whitehouse, H., & Bastian, B. (2012). When group membership gets personal: A theory of identity fusion. Psychological Review, 119(3), 441–456. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028589 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Swann, W. B., Jr., Kwan, V. S. Y., Polzer, J. T., & Milton, L. P. (2003). Fostering group identification and creativity in diverse groups: The role of individuation and self-verification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(11), 1396–1406. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203256868 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Swann, W. B., Jr., Milton, L. P., & Polzer, J. T. (2000). Should we create a niche or fall in line? Identity negotiation and small group effectiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(2), 238–250. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.2.238 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Swann, W. B., Jr., Pelham, B. W., & Krull, D. S. (1989). Agreeable fancy or disagreeable truth? Reconciling self-enhancement and self-verification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(5), 782–791.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In Austin, W. G. & Worchel, S. (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks-Cole. http://ark143.org/wordpress2/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Tajfel-Turner-1979-An-Integrative-Theory-of-Intergroup-Conflict.pdf Google Scholar

Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar

Twohey, M., & Dance, G. J. X. (2021, December 9). Where the despairing log on, and learn ways to die. New York Times. www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/12/09/us/where-the-despairing-log-on.html Google Scholar

Varmann, A. H., Kruse, L., Bierwiaczonek, K., et al. (2023). How identity fusion predicts extreme pro-group orientations: A meta-analysis. European Review of Social Psychology, 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2023.2190267 CrossRef Google Scholar

Walter, K. V., Conroy-Beam, D., Buss, D. M., et al. (2020). Sex differences in mate preferences across 45 countries: A large-scale replication. Psychological Science, 31(4), 408–423. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620904154 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Webber, D., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2017). Psychological factors in radicalization: A “3 N” approach. In LaFree, G. & Freilich, J. D. (Eds.), The handbook of the criminology of terrorism (pp. 33–46). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118923986.ch2 Google Scholar

Whitehouse, H., Jong, J., Buhrmester, M. D., et al. (2017). The evolution of extreme cooperation via shared dysphoric experiences. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 44292. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep44292 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Whitehouse, H., McQuinn, B., Buhrmester, M., & SwannJr., W. B. (2014).Brothers in arms: Libyan revolutionaries bond like family. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(50), 17783–17785.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wiesenfeld, B. M., Swann, W. B., Brockner, J., & Bartel, C. A. (2007). Is more fairness always preferred? Self-esteem moderates reactions to procedural justice. Academy of Management Journal, 50(5), 1235–1253. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2007.20159922 Google Scholar

Wolfowicz, M., Litmanovitz, Y., Weisburd, D., & Hasisi, B. (2021). Cognitive and behavioral radicalization: A systematic review of the putative risk and protective factors. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 17(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1174 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zell, E., Strickhouser, J. E., Sedikides, C., & Alicke, M. D. (2020). The better-than-average effect in comparative self-evaluation: A comprehensive review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 146(2), 118–149.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Book contents

Part I - The Link between Exclusion and Extremism

Summary

Access options

References

References

References

References

References

References

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive