Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovinia v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)), International Court of Justice, 13 September 1993, Judgment.

Arendt, Hannah. Eichmann in Jerusalem, New York: Viking Press, 1963.Google Scholar

Arendt, HannahOrigins of Totalitarianism, New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1951, 2nd edition, 1966.Google Scholar

Aristotle, , Nicomachean Ethics, Book III.

Ashworth, Andrew. Principles of Criminal Law, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995.Google Scholar

Bassiouni, M. Cherif, and Wise, Edward M.. Aut Dedere Aut Judicare: The Duty to Extradite or Prosecute in International Law, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1995.Google Scholar

Bentham, Jeremy. Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), edited by Burns, J. H. and Hart, H. L. A., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970.Google Scholar

Bhargava, Rajeev. “Restoring Decency to Barbaric Societies,” in Truth v. Justice, edited by Rotberg, Robert I. and Thompson, Dennis, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000, pp. 45–67.Google Scholar

Bolton, Martha. “Universals, Essences, and Abstract Entities,” in The Cambridge History of Seventeenth Century Philosophy, edited by Garber, Daniel and Ayers, Michael, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998, vol. I, pp. 178–211.Google Scholar

Card, Claudia. The Atrocity Paradigm, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Card, Claudia“Genocide and Social Death,” Hypatia, vol. 18, no. 1, Winter 2003, pp. 63–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Case Concerning the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovinia v. Serbia and Montenegro), International Court of Justice, 26 February 2007, Judgment.

Chalk, Frank, and Jonassohn, Kurt. The History and Sociology of Genocide, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.Google Scholar

Charter of the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, Annex to the London Agreement (8 Aug. 1945).

Clark, Phil. “Hybridity, Holism and ‘Traditional’ Justice: The Case of the Gacaca Courts in Post-Genocide Rwanda,” George Washington University Law Review, September 2007, pp. 1–68.Google Scholar

Clark, Phil “When the Killers Come Home,” Dissent, Summer 2005, pp. 14–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Clark, Roger S. “The Crime of Aggression,” in Carsten Stahn and Goran Sluiter, editors, The Emerging Practice of the International Criminal Court, Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2009, pp. 709–24.Google Scholar

Cohen, Stanley. States of Denial: Knowing about Atrocities and Suffering, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2001.Google Scholar

Convention on the Prevention, and Punishment of Genocide, adopted December 9, 1948; entered into force January 12, 1951, 78 U.N.T.S. 277.

Darcy, Shane. Collective Responsibility and Accountability under International Law, Leiden: Transnational Publishers, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Donnelly, Jack. Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2nd edition, 2003.Google Scholar

Doris, John. Lack of Character, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Douglas, Lawrence. The Memory of Judgment: Making Law and History in the Trials of the Holocaust, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.Google Scholar

Drumbl, Mark. Atrocity, Punishment, and International Law, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Drumbl, Mark “Collective Violence and Individual Punishment: The Criminality of Mass Atrocity,” Northwestern University Law Review, vol. 99, no. 2, Winter 2005, pp. 101–79.Google Scholar

Drumbl, Mark “The Expressive Value of Prosecuting and Punishing Terrorists: Hamdan, The Geneva Conventions, and International Criminal Law,” George Washington Law Review, vol. 75, no. 5/6, August 2007, pp. 1165–99.Google Scholar

Duff, Antony. Criminal Attempts, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.Google Scholar

Dworkin, Ronald. Taking Rights Seriously, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977.Google Scholar

eMJA, the Medical Journal of Australia, 1999, issue 170, pp. 437–40.

Farer, Tom J. “Humanitarian Intervention before and after 9/11,” in Humanitarian Intervention: Ethical, Legal, and Political Dilemmas, edited by Holzgrefe, J. L. and Keohane, Robert O., New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 53–89.Google Scholar

Feinberg, Joel. Harm to Others, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984.Google Scholar

Fletcher, Laurel. “From Indifference to Engagement: Bystanders and International Criminal Justice,” Michigan Journal of International Law, vol. 26, Summer 2005, pp. 1013–95.Google Scholar

Freeman, Mark. Truth Commissions and Procedural Fairness, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Frost, Mervyn. “Constitutive Theory and Moral Accountability: Individuals, Institutions, and Dispersed Practices,” in Erskine, Toni, editor, Can Institutions Have Responsibilities? London: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2003, pp. 84–99.Google Scholar

Gilbert, Margaret. On Social Facts, London: Routledge, 1989.Google Scholar

Govier, Trudy. Taking Wrongs Seriously, Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 2006.Google Scholar

Greenawalt, Alexander. “Rethinking Genocidal Intent: The Case for a Knowledge-Based Interpretation,” Columbia Law Review, vol. 99, 1999, pp. 2259–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Grotius, Hugo. De Jure Belli ac Pacis (On the Law of War and Peace) (1625), translated by Kelsey, Francis W., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925.Google Scholar

Grunfeld, Fred, and Huijboom, Anke. The Failure to Prevent Genocide in Rwanda: The Role of Bystanders, Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hart, H. L. A. “Negligence, Mens Rea, and Criminal Responsibility,” in Punishment and Responsibility, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968, 2nd edition, 1973, pp. 136–57.Google Scholar

Hill, Thomas. “Moral Responsibilities of Bystanders,” unpublished paper presented on a panel at the American Philosophical Association's Eastern Division meetings, December 2007, Baltimore, MD, copy in the possession of the author.

Hobbes, Thomas. De Corpore, part I, ch. 2, in Body, Man, and Citizen, edited by Peters, Richard S., New York: Collier Books, 1962.Google Scholar

Leviathan (1651), edited by Tuck, Richard, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Horder, Jeremy. “Crimes of Ulterior Intent,” in Harm and Culpability, edited by Simester, A. P. and Smith, A. T. H., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996, pp. 153–68.Google Scholar

Keohane, Robert O. “Political Authority after Intervention,” in Humanitarian Intervention: Ethical, Legal, and Political Dilemmas, edited by Holzgrefe, J. L. and Keohane, Robert O., New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 268–82.Google Scholar

Koskenniemi, Martti. “Between Impunity and Show Trials,” Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, vol. 6, 2002, pp. 1–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kutz, Christopher. Complicity, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

LaFave, Wayne R., and Scott, Austin W., Jr. Handbook of Criminal Law, St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, 1972.Google Scholar

Lang, Berel. Act and Idea in the Nazi Genocide, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.Google Scholar

Lemkin, Raphael. Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress, Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for World Peace, 1944.Google Scholar

Long, William J., and Brecke, Peter. War and Reconciliation, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003.Google Scholar

Luban, David. “Beyond Moral Minimalism,” Ethics & International Affairs, vol. 20, no. 3, 2006, pp. 353–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Luban, David “A Theory of Crimes against Humanity,” Yale Journal of International Law, vol. 29, no. 1 (2004), pp. 85–140.Google Scholar

Marsoobian, Arman T. “Epilogue: Reconciliation in the Aftermath of Genocide,” in Genocide's Aftermath, edited by Card, Claudia and Marsoobian, Arman T., Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2007, pp. 260–71.Google Scholar

May, Larry, “Act and Circumstance in the Crime of Aggression,” Journal of Political Philosophy, vol. 15, no. 2, 2007, pp. 169–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

May, LarryAggression and Crimes Against Peace, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

May, LarryCrimes Against Humanity: A Normative Account, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.Google Scholar

May, Larry “How Is Humanity Harmed by Genocide?” International Legal Theory, vol. 11, no. 1, Summer 2005, pp. 1–23.Google Scholar

May, Larry “Humanity, International Crime, and the Rights of Defendants,” Ethics & International Affairs, vol. 20, no. 3, 2006, pp. 373–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

May, LarryThe Morality of Groups, Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1987.Google Scholar

May, LarrySharing Responsibility, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.Google Scholar

May, LarryThe Socially Responsive Self, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.Google Scholar

May, LarryWar Crimes and Just War, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

McMahan, Jeff. “Just Cause for War,” Ethics & International Affairs, vol. 19, no. 3, 2005, pp. 55–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Miller, Arthur G., Buddie, Amy M., and Kretschmar, Jeffrey. “Explaining the Holocaust: Does Social Psychology Exonerate the Perpetrators?” in Understanding Genocide, edited by Newman, Leonard S. and Erber, Ralph, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 301–24.Google Scholar

Minow, Martha. Between Vengeance and Forgiveness, Boston: Beacon Press, 1998.Google Scholar

Model Penal Code, sec. 2.02, Comment (Tentative Draft No. 4, 1955).

Moody, Ernest A. “William of Ockham,” in The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edwards, Paul, New York: Macmillan, 1967, vol. 8, pp. 306–17.Google Scholar

Nagel, Thomas. “The Problem of Global Justice,” Philosophy & Public Affairs, vol. 33, no. 2, Spring 2005, pp. 113–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Normore, Calvin G. “Ockham's Metaphysics of Parts,” Journal of Philosophy, vol. 103, no. 12, December 2006, pp. 737–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ockham, William of.Ockham: Philosophical Writings, translated and edited by Philotheus Boehner, O. F. M., London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1957.Google Scholar

Ockham's Theory of Terms (Part I of the Summa Logicae), translated by Loux, Michael J., South Bend, IN: St. Augustine's Press, 1998.

Oshana, Marina. “Moral Taint,” in Genocide's Aftermath, edited by Card, Claudia and Marsoobian, Armen T., Oxford: Blackwell, 2007, pp. 71–93.Google Scholar

Patterson, Orlando. Slavery and Social Death, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982.Google Scholar

Payne v. Tennessee, 501 U.S. 808 (1990).

Power, Samantha. A Problem from Hell, New York: Harper and Row, 2002.Google Scholar

Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, case no. IT-94–1-T, Trial Chamber Judgment, 7 May 1997.

Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, case no. IT-94–1-A, Appeals Chamber Judgment, 15 July 1999.

Prosecutor v. Ferdinand Nahimana, Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza, and Hassan Ngeze, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, case no. ICTR-99–52-T, Trial Chamber Judgment, 3 December 2003.

Prosecutor v. Fernando Nahimana, Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza, and Hassan Ngeze, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, case no. ICTR-99–52-A, Appeals Chamber Judgment, 28 November 2007.

Prosecutor v. Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Amended Indictment, 4 April 2000.

Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, case no. IT-96–4-T, Trial Chamber Judgment, 2 September 1998.

Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, case no. IT-96–4-A, Appeals Chamber Judgment, 1 June 2001.

Prosecutor v. Mirjan Kupreskic et al., International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, IT-95–16-T, Trial Chamber Judgment, 14 January 2000.

Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, case No. IT-98–33-T, Trial Chamber Judgment, 2 August 2001.

Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic, International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, case no. IT-98–33-A, Appeals Chamber Judgment, 19 April 2004.

Quillet, Jeannine. “Community, Counsel, and Representation,” in The Cambridge History of Medieval Thought, edited by Burns, J. H., New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988, pp. 520–72.Google Scholar

R v. Coney (1882) 8 QBD 534.

Rademaker, Stephen. “Unwitting Party to Genocide: The International Criminal Court Is Complicating Efforts to Save Darfur,” Washington Post, January 11, 2007, p. A25.

Ratner, Steven R., and Abrams, Jason S., Accountability for Human Rights Atrocities in International Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.Google Scholar

Report of the International Commission of Inquiry for Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General, Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1564 of 18 September 2004, Geneva, 25 January 2005.

Robinson, Nehemiah. “The Genocide Convention: Its Origins and Interpretation,” 1949, reprinted in Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law, vol. 40, nos. 1 and 2, 2007–8, appendix, pp. 1–75.Google Scholar

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, July 17, 1998, Article 6.

Rosenbaum, Alan S., editor. Is the Holocaust Unique?Boulder: Westview Press, 2001.Google Scholar

Rotberg, Robert I., and Thompson, Dennis, editors. Truth v. Justice, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.Google Scholar

Sadat, Leila. “Exile, Amnesty, and International Law, Notre Dame Law Review, vol. 81, no. 3, March 2006, pp. 955–1036.Google Scholar

Samuels, Shimon. “Applying the Lessons of the Holocaust,” in Is the Holocaust Unique? edited by Rosenbaum, Alan S., Boulder: Westview Press, 2001, pp. 209–20.Google Scholar

Schabas, William. Genocide in International Law, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000, 2nd edition, 2009.Google Scholar

Schabas, WilliamThe UN International Criminal Tribunals, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Scharf, Michael. Balkan Justice, Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 1997.Google Scholar

Scharf, Michael “Swapping Amnesty for Peace: Was There a Duty to Prosecute International Crimes in Haiti?Texas International Law Journal, vol. 31, 1996, pp. 1–38.Google Scholar

Scheffer, David. “Atrocity Crimes Framing the Responsibility to Protect,” Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law, vol. 40, nos. 1 & 2, 2007–8, pp. 111–35.Google Scholar

Searle, John. The Construction of Social Reality, New York: Free Press, 1995.Google Scholar

Shue, Henry. “Bombing to Rescue: NATO'S 1999 Bombing of Serbia,” in Ethics and Foreign Intervention, edited by Chatterjee, Dean and Sheid, Don, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 97–117.Google Scholar

Shue, Henry “Torture,” Philosophy & Public Affairs, vol. 7 no. 2, Winter 1978, pp. 124–43.Google Scholar

Simester, A. P., and Smith, A. T. H.. Harm and Culpability, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Skinner, Quentin. “Hobbes and the Purely Artificial Person of the State,” Journal of Political Philosophy, vol. 7, no. 1, 1999, pp. 1–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Slye, Ronald. “Amnesty, Truth, and Reconciliation: Reflections on the South African Amnesty Process,” in Truth v. Justice, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000, pp. 170–88.Google Scholar

Smith, K. J. M.A Modern Treatise on the Law of Criminal Complicity, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.Google Scholar

State v. Kudangirana 1976(3) SA 565 AT 566 PER Macdonald JP (AD).

Straub, Ervin. “The Psychology of Bystanders, Perpetrators, and Heroic Helpers,” in Newman, Leonard S. and Erber, Ralph, editors, Understanding Genocide, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 11–42.Google Scholar

Stromseth, Jane. “Rethinking Humanitarian Intervention,” in Humanitarian Intervention: Ethical, Legal, and Political Dilemmas, edited by Holzgrefe, J. L. and Keohane, Robert O., New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 232–72.Google Scholar

Sumner, L. Wayne. “Incitement and the Regulation of Hate Speech,” 2008, unpublished manuscript in the possession of the author.

Teson, Fernando. “The Liberal Case for Humanitarian Intervention,” in Humanitarian Intervention: Ethical, Legal, and Political Dilemmas, edited by Holzgrefe, J. L. and Keohane, Robert O., New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 93–129.Google Scholar

Thompson, Jana. Taking Responsibility for the Past, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2002.Google Scholar

Thompson, Warren K. “Ethics, Evil, and the Final Solution,” in Echoes from the Holocaust, edited by Rosenberg, Alan and Myers, Gerald E., Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988, pp. 181–222.Google Scholar

The Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Commission, Secretariat of the Tribunal, Nuremberg, 1948.

Tuomela, Raimo. The Philosophy of Sociality: The Shared Point of View, New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Tuomela, RaimoA Theory of Social Action, Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1984.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Tutu, Desmond Mpilo. “Foreword” to Erin Daly and Jeremy Sarkin, Reconciliation in Divided Societies, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007, pp. ix–x.Google Scholar

United Nations General Assembly World Outcome Document, G.A. Res. A/RES/60/1, para. 139, U.N. Doc. A/RES/60/1 (Oct. 24, 2005).

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, U.N. G.A. Res. 217A, 3 U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/810, at 71 (1948).

Vattel, Emer de.Le Droit des Gens, ou Principes de la Loi Naturelle (The Laws of Nations or the Principles of Natural Law; 1758), Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute, 1916.Google Scholar

Vetlesen, Arne Johan. “Genocide: A Case for the Responsibility of Bystanders,” in Ethics, Nationalism, and Just War, edited by Syse, Henrik and Reichberg, Gregory M., Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2007, pp. 352–71.Google Scholar

Walker, Margaret. Moral Repair: Reconstructing Moral Relations after Wrongdoing, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Waller, James. Becoming Evil: How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.Google Scholar

Walzer, Michael. “The Moral Standing of States: A Response to Four Critics,” Philosophy & Public Affairs, 1980, pp. 209–29.Google Scholar

Williams, Paul R., and Stewart, Meghan E.. “Humanitarian Intervention: The New Missing Link in the Fight to Prevent Crimes against Humanity and Genocide?” Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law, vol. 40, nos. 1 & 2, 2007–8, pp. 97–110.Google Scholar