Geomagnetic Field

Part II - Geomagnetic Field

Sources and Observations

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 25 October 2019

Edited by

Andrew Yau and

Mioara Mandea: Affiliation:
Centre National d'études Spatiales, France
Monika Korte: Affiliation:
GeoforschungsZentrum, Helmholtz-Zentrum, Potsdam
Andrew Yau: Affiliation:
University of Calgary
Eduard Petrovsky: Affiliation:
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague

Book contents

Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'

Type: Chapter
Information: Geomagnetism, Aeronomy and Space Weather
A Journey from the Earth's Core to the Sun
, pp. 39 - 112

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108290135 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Baker, D. N. (2000) Effects of the Sun on the Earth’s environment, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 62, 1669–81.Google Scholar

Baker, D. N., et al. (1996) The neutral line model of substorms: Past results and present view, J. Geophys. Rev., 101, 12,995–13,010.Google Scholar

Birkeland, K. (1908) The Norwegian Aurora Polaris Expedition, 1902–1903, H. Aschehoug, Christania, Norvège.Google Scholar

Campbell, W. N. (2003) Introduction to Geomagnetic Fields, 2nd edn., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar

Chapman, S. and Bartels, J. (1940) Geomagnetism, Oxford University Press, New York.Google Scholar

Chapman, S. and Ferraro, V. C. A. (1931) New theory of magnetic storms, Terr. Magn. Atm. Elec., 36, 77.CrossRef Google Scholar

Cole, K. D. (1966) Magnetic storms and associated phenomena, Space Sci. Rev., 5, 699–770.Google Scholar

Cowley, S. W. H. (1991) The structure and length of tail-associated phenomena in the solar wind downstream from the Earth, Planet. Space Sci., 39, 1039–43.Google Scholar

Dungey, J. W. (1961) Interplanetary magnetic field and the auroral zones, Phys. Rev. Lett., 6, 47.CrossRef Google Scholar

Gauss, C. F. (1839) Allgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, in Resultate aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins im Jahre 1838, Ed. Gauss, C. F. and Weber, W., 1–57, Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, Leipzig.Google Scholar

Glassmeier, K.-H. T. and Tsurutani, B. (2014). Carl Friedrich Gauss – General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism – a revised translation of the German text. Hist. Geor. Space Sci., 5, 11-62. doi: 10.5194/hgss-5-11-2014.Google Scholar

Glatzmaier, G. A. and Roberts, P. H. (1995) A three-dimensional self-consistent computer simulation of a geomagnetic field reversal, Nature, 377, 203–9.Google Scholar

Hultqvist, B., Oieroset, M., Paschmann, G. and Treumann, R. (Eds.) (1999) Magnetospheric Plasma Sources and Losses, Space Science Series 6, Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht.CrossRef Google Scholar

Iijima, T. and Potemra, T. A. (1978) Large scale characteristics of field-aligned currents associated with substorms, J. Geophys. Res., 83, 599–615.Google Scholar

Jacobs, J. A. (Ed.) (1987) Geomagnetism, vols. 1 and 2, Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar

Jacobs, J. A. (Ed.) (1991) Geomagnetism, vol. 4, Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar

Sibeck, D. G. and Lin, R.-Q. (2014) Size and shape of the distant magnetotail, J. Geophys. Res., 119, 1028–43.Google Scholar

Tsyganenko, N. A. (1989) Magnetospheric magnetic field with a warped tail current sheet. Planet. Space Sci., 73, 5.Google Scholar

Tsyganenko, N. A. and Stern, D. P. (1996) Modeling the global magnetic field of the large scale Birkeland current system, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 187–98.Google Scholar

References

Biggin, A., van Hinsbergen, D., Langereis, C., Straathof, G., & Deenen, M. (2008). Geomagnetic secular variation in the Cretaceous Normal Superchron and in the Jurassic. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 169(1–4), 3–19.Google Scholar

Bloxham, J. & Gubbins, D. (1985). The secular variation of Earth’s magnetic field. Nature 317, 777–81.Google Scholar

Coe, R. S. (1967). The determination of paleo-intensities of the Earth’s magnetic field with emphasis on mechanisms which could cause nonideal behavior in Thellier’s method. Journal of Geomagnetism and Geoelectricity, 19(3), 157–79.Google Scholar

Constable, C. G. & Parker, R. L. (1988). Statistics of the geomagnetic secular variation for the past 5 m.y. Journal of Geophysical Research, 93(B10), 11569–81.CrossRef Google Scholar

Courtillot, V. & Besse, J. (1987). Magnetic field reversals, polar wander, and core–mantle coupling. Science, 237(4819), 1140–47.Google Scholar

Courtillot, V. & Besse, J. (2004). A long-term octupolar component in the geomagnetic field? (0–200 million years BP), in Timescales of the Paleomagnetic Field, edited by Channell, J. E. T., Kent, D. V., Lowrie, W. & Meert, J. G., AGU, Washington, DC.Google Scholar

Courtillot, V. & Olson, P. L. (2007). Mantle plumes link magnetic superchrons to phanerozoic mass depletion events. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 260(3–4), 495–504.Google Scholar

Cox, A. (1962). Analysis of present geomagnetic field for comparison with paleomagnetic results. Journal of Geomagnetism and Geoelectricity, 13, 113–19.Google Scholar

Cox, A. (1969). Confidence limits for the precision parameter k. Geophysical Journal of Royal Astronomical Society, 18, 545–9.Google Scholar

Cox, A. (1970). Latitude dependence of the angular dispersion of the geomagnetic field. Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 20(3), 253–69.Google Scholar

Cox, A. (1975). The frequency of geomagnetic reversals and the symmetry of the nondipole field. Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics, 13(3), 35–51.Google Scholar

Creer, K., Irving, E. & Nairn, A. (1959). Palaeomagnetism of the Great Whin Sill. Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 2, 306–23.Google Scholar

Cronin, M., Tauxe, L., Constable, C., Selkin, P. & Pick, T. (2001). Noise in the quiet zone. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 190(1–2), 13–30.Google Scholar

de Groot, L. V., Biggin, A. J., Dekkers, M. J., Langereis, C. G. & Herrero-Bervera, E. (2013). Rapid regional perturbations to the recent global geomagnetic decay revealed by a new Hawaiian record. Nature Communications, 4, 1–7.Google Scholar

de Groot, L. V., Pimentel, A. & di Chiara, A. (2016). The multimethod palaeointensity approach applied to volcanics from Terceira: Full-vector geomagnetic data for the past 50 kyr. Geophysical Journal International, 206(1), 590–604.Google Scholar

Driscoll, P. E. & Evans, D. A. D. (2016). Frequency of Proterozoic geomagnetic superchrons. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 437, 9–14.Google Scholar

Driscoll, P. E. & Olson, P. L. (2011). Superchron cycles driven by variable core heat flow. Geophysical Research Letters, 38(9), L09304.Google Scholar

Eide, E. & Torsvik, T. (1996). Paleozoic supercontinental assembly, mantle flushing, and genesis of the Kiaman Superchron. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 144(3–4), 389–402.Google Scholar

Elston, D. P., Enkin, R. J., Baker, J. & Kisilevsky, D. K. (2002). Tightening the belt: Paleomagnetic-stratigraphic constraints on deposition, correlation, and deformation of the Middle Proterozoic (ca. 1.4 Ga) Belt-Purcell Supergroup, United States and Canada. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 114(5), 619–38.Google Scholar

Fisher, R. A. (1953). Dispersion on a sphere. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A, 217, 295–305.Google Scholar

Gallet, Y. & Hulot, G. (1997). Stationary and nonstationary behaviour within the geomagnetic polarity time scale. Geophysical Research Letters, 24(15), 1875–8.Google Scholar

Gallet, Y., Pavlov, V. E., Halverson, G. & Hulot, G. (2012). Toward constraining the long-term reversing behavior of the geodynamo: A new ‘Maya’ superchron ~1 billion years ago from the magnetostratigraphy of the Kartochka Formation (southwestern Siberia). Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 339–40, 117–26.Google Scholar

Gilder, S. A., Gomez, J., Chen, Y. & Cogné, J. P. (2008). A new paleogeographic configuration of the Eurasian landmass resolves a paleomagnetic paradox of the Tarim Basin (China). Tectonics, 27, TC1012, doi: 10.1029/2007TC002155.Google Scholar

Glatzmaier, G., Coe, R., Hongre, L. & Roberts, P. (1999). The role of the Earth’s mantle in controlling the frequency of geomagnetic reversals. Nature, 401(6756), 885–90.Google Scholar

Hagstrum, J. T., Fleck, R. J., Evarts, R. C. & Calvert, A. T. (2017). Paleomagnetism and ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar geochronology of the Plio-Pleistocene Boring volcanic field: Implications for the geomagnetic polarity time scale and paleosecular variation, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 262, 101–15.Google Scholar

Harrison, C. (1995). Secular variation of the earth’s magnetic field. Journal of Geomagnetism and Geoelectricity, 47, 131–47.Google Scholar

Heimpel, M. H., Aurnou, J. M., Al-Shamali, F. M. & Gomez-Perez, N. (2005). A numerical study of dynamo action as a function of spherical shell geometry. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 236(1–2), 542–57.Google Scholar

Hulot, G. & Gallet, Y. (2003). Do superchrons occur without any palaeomagnetic warning? Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 210(1–2), 191–201.Google Scholar

Irving, E. & Ward, M. (1964). A statistical model of the geomagnetic field. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 57(1), 47–52.Google Scholar

Jackson, A. & Bloxham, J. (1991). Mapping the fluid flow and shear near the core surface using the radial and horizontal components of the magnetic field. Geophysical Journal International, 105(1), 199–212.Google Scholar

Jacobs, J. (2001). The cause of superchrons. Astronomy & Geophysics, 42(6), 6–30.Google Scholar

Landeau, M., Aubert, J. & Olson, P. L. (2017). The signature of inner-core nucleation on the geodynamo. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 465, 193–204.Google Scholar

Larson, R. (1991). Latest pulse of Earth: Evidence for a mid-Cretaceous superplume. Geology, 19(6), 547.Google Scholar

Larson, R. & Olson, P. (1991). Mantle plumes control magnetic reversal frequency. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 107(3–4), 437–47.Google Scholar

Lhuillier, F. & Gilder, S. A. (2013). Quantifying paleosecular variation: Insights from numerical dynamo simulations. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 382, 87–97.Google Scholar

Lhuillier, F., Gilder, S. A., Wack, M., He, K., Petersen, N., Singer, B. S., Jicha, B. R., Schaen, A. J. & Colon, D. (2016). More stable yet bimodal geodynamo during the Cretaceous superchron? Geophysical Research Letters, 43(12), 6170–7.CrossRef Google Scholar

Lhuillier, F., Hulot, G. & Gallet, Y. (2013). Statistical properties of reversals and chrons in numerical dynamos and implications for the geodynamo. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 220, 19–36.Google Scholar

Lhuillier, F., Shcherbakov, V., Gilder, S. A. & Hagstrum, J. T. (2017). Variability of the 0–3 Ma palaeomagnetic field observed from the Boring Volcanic Field of the Pacific Northwest. Geophysical Journal International, 211, 69–79.Google Scholar

Linder, J. & Gilder, S. A. (2011). Geomagnetic secular variation recorded by sediments deposited during the Cretaceous normal superchron at low latitude. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 187, 245–60.Google Scholar

Linder, J. M. & Gilder, S. A. (2012). Latitude dependency of the geomagnetic secular variation S parameter: A mathematical artifact. Geophysical Research Letters, 39, L02308, doi: 10.1029/2011GL050330.Google Scholar

Loper, D. & McCartney, K. (1986). Mantle plumes and the periodicity of magnetic field reversals. Geophysical Research Letters, 13(13), 1525–8.Google Scholar

McElhinny, M. & Merrill, R. (1975). Geomagnetic secular variation over the past 5 My. Reviews of Geophysics, 13(5), 687–708.Google Scholar

McFadden, P. & McElhinny, M. (1984). A physical model for palaeosecular variation. Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 78(3), 809–30.Google Scholar

McFadden, R. & Merrill, R. (1986). Geodynamo energy source constraints from palaeomagnetic data. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 43(1), 22–33.Google Scholar

McFadden, P., Merrill, R. & McElhinny, M. (1988). Dipole/quadrupole family modeling of paleosecular variation. Journal of Geophysical Research, 93(B10), 11583–8.Google Scholar

Olson, P. L. (2007). Gravitational dynamos and the low-frequency geomagnetic secular variation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(51), 20160–66.Google Scholar PubMed

Olson, P. L. & Amit, H. (2015). Mantle superplumes induce geomagnetic superchrons. Frontiers in Earth Science, 3, 1–11.Google Scholar

Olson, P. L., Driscoll, P. E. & Amit, H. (2009). Dipole collapse and reversal precursors in a numerical dynamo. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 173, 121–140.Google Scholar

Olson, P. L., Deguen, R., Hinnov, L. A. & Zhong, S. (2013). Controls on geomagnetic reversals and core evolution by mantle convection in the Phanerozoic. Physics of Earth and Planetary Interiors, 214, 87–103.Google Scholar

Olson, P. L., Glatzmaier, G. A. & Coe, R. S. (2011). Complex polarity reversals in a geodynamo model. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 304(1–2), 168–79.Google Scholar

Pavlov, V. & Gallet, Y. (2005). A third superchron during the Early Paleozoic. Episodes, 28(2), 78–84.Google Scholar

Pavlov, V. E. & Gallet, Y. (2010). Variations in geomagnetic reversal frequency during the Earth’s middle age. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 11(1), Q01Z10, doi: 10.1029/2009GC002583.Google Scholar

Riisager, J., Perrin, M., Riisager, P. & Vandamme, D. (2001). Paleomagnetic results and paleointensity of Late Cretaceous Madagascan basalt. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 32(3), 503–18.Google Scholar

Roberts, P. H. & Glatzmaier, G. A. (2001). The geodynamo, past, present and future. Geophysical and Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics, 94(1–2), 47–84, doi: 10.1080/03091920108204131Google Scholar

Tarduno, J., Cottrell, R. & Smirnov, A. (2002). The Cretaceous superchron geodynamo: Observations near the tangent cylinder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99(22), 14020–25.Google Scholar

Tauxe, L. & Kent, D. V. (2004). A simplified statistical model for the geomagnetic field and the detection of shallow bias, in Timescales of the Paleomagnetic Field, AGU, Washington, DC, pp. 101–15.Google Scholar

Tauxe, L., Pick, T. & Kok, Y. S. (1995). Relative paleointensity in sediments: A pseudo-Thellier approach. Geophysical Research Letters, 22(21), 2885–8.Google Scholar

Tauxe, L. & Staudigel, H. (2004). Strength of the geomagnetic field in the Cretaceous normal superchron: New data from submarine basaltic glass of the Troodos Ophiolite. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 5(2), doi: 10.1029/2003GC000635.Google Scholar

Thellier, E. & Thellier, O. (1959). Sur l’intensité du champ magnétique terrestre dans le passé historique et géologique. Annales de Géophysique, 15, 285–376.Google Scholar

References

Alken, P., Chulliat, A. & Maus, S. (2013). Longitudinal and seasonal structure of the ionospheric equatorial electric field. J. Geophys. Res. Space Physics, 118, 1298–1305, doi: 10.1029/2012JA018314.Google Scholar

Alldredge, L. R. & Saldukas, I. (1964). An automatic standard magnetic observatory. J. Geophys. Res., 69(10), 1963–70.Google Scholar

Aschenbrenner, H. & Goubau, G. (1936). Ein Anordnung zur Registrierung rascher magnetischer Störungen. Hochfrequenztechnik Elektroakustik, 47, 177–81.Google Scholar

Bitterly, J., Cantin, J. M., Schlich, R. & Folques, J. (1984). Portable magnetometer theodolite with fluxgate sensor for Earth’s magnetic field component measurements. Geophys. Surv., 6, 233–9.Google Scholar

Bitterly, J. & Lalanne, X. (2003). Observatoire Magnétique Planétaire – Manuel d’opérations / Operation Manual (English translation). Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Paris.Google Scholar

Buchanan, A., Finn, C. A., Love, J. J., Worthington, E. W., Lawson, F., Maus, S., Okewunmi, S. & Poedjono, B. (2013). Geomagnetic referencing – the real-time compass for directional drillers. Oilfield Rev., 25(3), 32–47.Google Scholar

Bullard, E. C. & Mason, R. G. (1961). The magnetic field astern of a ship. Deep Sea Res., 8(1), 20–27, doi: 10.1016/0146-6313(61)90012-0.Google Scholar

Chi, P. J., et al. (2013). Sounding of the plasmasphere by Mid-continent MAgnetoseismic Chain (McMAC) magnetometers. J. Geophys. Res. Space Physics, 118, 3077–86, doi: 10.1002/jgra.50274.Google Scholar

Chulliat, A., Matzka, J., Masson, A. & Milan, S. E. (2017). Key ground-based and space-based assets to disentangle magnetic field sources in the Earth’s environment. Space Sci. Rev., 206, 123–56, doi: 10.1007/s11214-016-0291-y.Google Scholar

Chulliat, A. & Maus, S. (2014). Geomagnetic secular acceleration, jerks, and a localized standing wave at the core surface from 2000 to 2010. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 119, 1531–43, doi: 10.1002/2013JB010604.Google Scholar

Chulliat, A., Savary, J., Telali, K. & Lalanne, X. (2009). Acquisition of 1-second data in IPGP magnetic observatories. US Geol. Surv. Open-File Rep., 2009–1226, 54–9.Google Scholar

Chulliat, A. & Telali, K. (2007). World monthly means database project. Publs. Inst. Geophys. Pol. Acad. Sc., C-99(398), 268–74.Google Scholar

Clarke, E., Baillie, O., Reay, S. J. & Turbitt, C. W. (2013). A method for the near real-time production of quasi-definitive magnetic observatory data. Earth Planets Space, 65, 1363–74, doi: 10.5047/eps.2013.10.001.Google Scholar

Duret, D., Léger, J. M., Francès, M., Bonzom, J. & Alcouffe, F. (1996). Performances of the OVH magnetometer for the Danish Oersted satellite. IEEE Trans. Magnetics, 32(5), 4935–7.Google Scholar

Engebretson, M. J., Hughes, W. J., Alford, J. L., Zesta, E., Cahill, L. J. Jr., Arnoldy, R. L. & Reeves, G. D. (1995). Magnetometer array for cusp and cleft studies observations of the spatial extent of broadband ULF magnetic pulsations at cusp/cleft latitudes. J. Geophys. Res., 100(A10), 19371–86, doi: 10.1029/95JA00768.Google Scholar

Engebretson, M. J. & Zesta, E. (2017). The future of ground magnetometer arrays in support of space weather monitoring and research. Space Weather, 15, 1433–41, doi: 10.1002/2017SW001718.Google Scholar

Engels, M., Barckhausen, U. & Gee, J. S. (2008). A new towed marine vector magnetometer: methods and results from a Central Pacific cruise. Geophys. J. Int., 172(1), 115–29, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03601.x.Google Scholar

Fairhead, J. D. & Green, C. M. (2015). Generating a high-resolution global magnetic model for oil and mineral exploration. The Leading Edge, 34(9), 1096–1102, doi: 10.1190/tle34091096.1.Google Scholar

Finlay, C. C., Olsen, N., Kotsiaros, S., Gillet, N. & Tøffner-Clausen, L. (2016). Recent geomagnetic secular variation from Swarm and ground observatories as estimated in the CHAOS-6 geomagnetic field model. Earth Planets Space, 68, 112, doi: 10.1186/s40623-016-0486-1.Google Scholar

Freude, D. (2006). Spectroscopy for Physicists. http://home.uni-leipzig.de/energy/freuse.html.Google Scholar

Gjerloev, J. W. (2009). A global ground-based magnetometer initiative. Eos Trans. AGU, 90(27), 230–31, doi: 10.1029/2009EO270002.Google Scholar

Gjerloev, J. W. (2012). The SuperMAG data processing technique. J. Geophys. Res., 117, A09213, doi: 10.1029/2012JA017683.Google Scholar

Hamoudi, M., Quesnel, Y., Dyment, J. & Lesur, V. (2011). Aeromagnetic and marine measurements. In Mandea, M. & Korte, M., eds., Geomagnetic Observations and Models. Springer, pp. 57–103.Google Scholar

Hrvoic, I. & Newitt, L. R. (2011). Instruments and methodologies for measurement of the Earth’s magnetic field. In Mandea, M. & Korte, M., eds., Geomagnetic Observations and Models. Springer, pp. 105–26.Google Scholar

Jackson, A., Jonkers, A. R. T. & Walker, M. R. (2000). Four centuries of geomagnetic secular variation from historical records. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A, 358, 957–90.Google Scholar

Jankowski, J. & Sucksdorff, C. (1996). Guide for Magnetic Measurements and Observatory Practice. International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy, Warsaw.Google Scholar

Jonkers, A. R. T., Jackson, A. & Murray, A. (2003). Four centuries of geomagnetic data from historical records. Rev. Geophys., 41, 1006, doi: 10.1029/2002RG000115.Google Scholar

Kernevez, N., Duret, D., Moussavi, M. & Léger, J. M. (1992). Weak field NMR and ESR spectrometers and magnetometers. IEEE Trans. Magnetics, 28(5), 3054–9.Google Scholar

Kim, H., Cai, X., Clauer, C. R., Kunduri, B. S. R., Matzka, J., Stolle, S. & Weimer, D. R. (2013). Geomagnetic response to solar wind dynamic pressure impulse events at high-latitude conjugate points. J. Geophys. Res. Space Physics, 118, 6055–71, doi: 10.1002/jgra.50555.Google Scholar

Knappe, S., Sander, T. & Trahms, L. (2014). Optically-pumped magnetometers for MEG. In Supek, S. & Aine, C. J., eds., Magnetoencephalography. Springer, Berlin, pp. 993–9.Google Scholar

Léger, J. M., Bertrand, F., Jager, T., Le Prado, M., Fratter, I. & Lalaurie, J. C. (2009). Swarm absolute scalar and vector magnetometer based on helium 4 optical pumping. Procedia Chem., 1, 634–7, doi: 10.1016/j.proche.2009.07.158.Google Scholar

Lichtenberger, J., Clilverd, M., Heilig, B., Vellante, M., Manninen, J., Rodger, C., Collier, A., Jørgensen, A., Reda, J., Holzworth, R. & Friedel, R. (2013). The plasmasphere during a space weather event: first results from the PLASMON project, J. Space Weather Space Clim., 3, A23, doi: 10.1051/swsc/201304.Google Scholar

Love, J. J. & Chulliat, A. (2013). An international network of magnetic observatories. Eos Trans. AGU, 9(4), 373–4, doi: 10.1002/2013EO420001.Google Scholar

Love, J. J. & Finn, C. A. (2011). The USGS geomagnetism program and its role in space weather monitoring. Space Weather, 9, S07001, doi: 10.1029/2011SW000684.Google Scholar

Macmillan, S. & Olsen, N. (2013). Observatory data and the Swarm mission. Earth Planets Space, 65, 1355–62, doi: 10.5047/eps.2013.07.011.Google Scholar

Marusenkov, A. (2017). Possibilities of further improvement of 1 s fluxgate variometers. Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 6, 301–9, doi: 10.5194/gi-6-301-2017.Google Scholar

Matzka, J. (2012). Preparation of quasi-definitive (QD) data for the observatories Narsarsuaq, Qeqertarsuaq and Tristan da Cunha. In Hejda, P., Chulliat, A. & Catalan, M., eds., Proceedings of the XVth IAGA Workshop on Geomagnetic Observatory Instruments, Data Acquisition, and Processing, Real Instituto Y Observatorio de la Armada en San Fernando, San Fernando, Boletin Roa No. 03/13, pp. 50–53.Google Scholar

Matzka, J., Chulliat, A., Mandea, M., Finlay, C. C. & Qamili, E. (2010). Geomagnetic observations for main field studies: From ground to space. Space Sci. Rev., 155, 29–64, doi: 10.1007/s11214-010-9693-4.Google Scholar

Meyer, B., Chulliat, A. & Saltus, R. (2017). Derivation and error analysis of the Earth magnetic anomaly grid at 2 arc min resolution Version 3 (EMAG2v3). Geochem. Geophys. Geosys., 18, 4522–37, doi: 10.1002/2017GC007280.Google Scholar

Miles, P. J., Partner, R. T., Keeler, K. R. & McConnell, T. J. (2008). Unmanned airborne vehicle for geophysical surveying. U.S. patent US2008/0125920 A1, published 29 May.Google Scholar

Mohr, P. J., Taylor, B. N. & Newell, D. B. (2008). CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2006. Rev. Mod. Phys., 80, 633–730, doi: 10.1103/RevModPhys.80.633.Google Scholar

Nabighian, M. N., Grauch, V. J. S., Hansen, R. O., LaFehr, T. R., Li, Y., Peirce, J. W., Phillips, J. D. & Ruder, M. E. (2005). The historical development of the magnetic method in exploration. Geophysics, 70(6), 33–61, doi: 10.1190/1.2133784.Google Scholar

Narod, B. B., Bennest, J. R., Strom-Olsen, J. O., Nezil, F. & Dunlap, R. A. (1985). An evaluation of the noise performance of Fe, Co, Si, and B amorphous alloys in ring-core fluxgate magnetometers. Can. J. Phys., 63(11), 1468–72, doi: 10.1139/p85-246.Google Scholar

Newitt, L. R., Barton, C. E. & Bitterly, J. (1996). Guide for Magnetic Repeat Stations. International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy, Boulder, CO.Google Scholar

Nielsen, O. V., Petersen, J. R., Primdahl, F., Brauer, P., Hernando, B., Fernandez, A., Merayo, J. M. G. & Ripka, P. (1995). Development, construction and analysis of the ‘Ørsted’ fluxgate magnetometer. Meas. Sci. Technol., 6, 1099–1115.CrossRef Google Scholar

Olsen, N., Ravat, D., Finlay, C. C. & Kother, L. K. (2017). LCS-1: A high-resolution global model of the lithospheric magnetic field derived from CHAMP and Swarm satellite observations. Geophys. J. Int., 211(3), 1461–77, doi: 10.1093/gji/ggx381.Google Scholar

Overhauser, A. W. (1953). Paramagnetic relaxation in metals. Phys. Rev., 89, 689–700, doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.92.411.Google Scholar

Packard, M. E. (1958). Gyromagnetic resonance magnetometer. U.S. patent 2,856,579, issued 14 October.Google Scholar

Peltier, A. & Chulliat, A. (2010). On the feasibility of promptly producing quasi-definitive magnetic observatory data. Earth Planets Space, 62, e5–e8, doi: 10.5047/eps.2010.02.002.Google Scholar

Poncelet, A., Gonsette, A. & Rasson, J. (2017). Several years of experience with automatic DI-flux systems: theory, validation and results. Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 6, 353–60, doi: 10.5194/gi-6-353-2017.Google Scholar

Primdahl, F. (1979). The fluxgate magnetometer. J. Phys. E Sci. Instrum., 12, 241–53.Google Scholar

Rasmussen, O. & Kring Lauridsen, E. (1990). Improving baseline drift in fluxgate magnetometers caused by foundation movements, using band suspended fluxgate sensors. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 59, 78–81.Google Scholar

Reeves, C. (2005). Aeromagnetic Surveys – Principles, Practice and Interpretation. Geosoft (http://www.geosoft.com).Google Scholar

Schiffler, M., Queitsch, M., Stolz, R., Chwala, A., Krech, W., Meyer, H.-G. & Kukowski, N. (2014). Calibration of SQUID vector magnetometers in full tensor gradiometry systems. Geophys. J. Int., 198, 954–64, doi: 10.1093/gji/ggu173.Google Scholar

Schnepf, N., Manoj, C., Kuvshinov, A., Toh, H. & Maus, S. (2014). Tidal signals in ocean-bottom magnetic measurements of the Northwestern Pacific: observation versus prediction. Geophys. J. Int., 198, 1096–110, doi: 10.1093/gji/ggu190.Google Scholar

Serson, P. H. & Hannaford, W. L. W. (1956). A portable electrical magnetometer. Can. J. Technol., 34, 232–43.Google Scholar

Sheng, D., Li, S., Dural, N. & Romalis, M. V. (2013). Subfemtotesla scalar atomic magnetometry using multipass cells. Phys. Rev. Lett., 110, 160802, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.160802.Google Scholar

St Louis, B., ed. (2012). INTERMAGNET Technical Reference Manual, version 4.6.Google Scholar

Stuart, W. F. (1972). Earth’s field magnetometry. Rep. Prog. Phys., 35, 803–81.Google Scholar

Tanskanen, E. I. (2009). A comprehensive high-throughput analysis of substorms observed by IMAGE magnetometer network: Years 1993–2003 examined. J. Geophys. Res., 114, A05204, doi: 10.1029/2008JA013682.Google Scholar

Toh, H., Hamano, Y. & Ichiki, M. (2006). Long-term seafloor geomagnetic station in the northwest Pacific: A possible candidate for a seafloor geomagnetic observatory. Earth Planets Space, 58, 697–705.Google Scholar

Toh, H., Satake, K., Hamano, Y., Fujii, Y. & Goto, T. (2011). Tsunami signals from the 2006 and 2007 Kuril earthquakes detected at a seafloor geomagnetic observatory. J. Geophys. Res., 116, B02104, doi: 10.1029/2010JB007873.Google Scholar

Torta, J. M., Pavón-Carrasco, F. J., Marsal, S. & Finlay, C. C. (2015). Evidence for a new geomagnetic jerk in 2014. Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 7933–40, doi: 10.1002/2015GL065501.Google Scholar

Turner, G. M., Rasson, J. L. & Reeves, C. V. (2009). Observation and measurement techniques. In Schubert, G. & Kono, M., eds., Treatise on Geophysics – Geomagnetism. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 93–146.Google Scholar

Van Loo, S. A. & Rasson, J. L. (2007). Presentation of the prototype of an automated DIFlux. Publs. Inst. Geophys. Pol. Acad. Sc., C-99(398), 77–86.Google Scholar

Varian, R. H. (1951). Method and means for correlating nuclear properties of atoms and magnetic fields. US patent 2,561,490, issued 24 July.Google Scholar

Weygand, J. M., Amm, O., Viljanen, A., Angelopoulos, V., Murr, D., Engebretson, M. J., Gleisner, H. & Mann, I. (2011). Application and validation of the spherical elementary currents systems technique for deriving ionospheric equivalent currents with the North American and Greenland ground magnetometer arrays. J. Geophys. Res., 116, A03305, doi: 10.1029/2010JA016177.Google Scholar

Xu, Z., Hartinger, M. D., Clauer, C. R., Peek, T. & Behlke, R. (2017). A comparison of the ground magnetic responses during the 2013 and 2015 St. Patrick’s Day geomagnetic storms. J. Geophys. Res. Space Physics, 122, 4023–36, doi: 10.1002/2016JA023338.Google Scholar

Yizengaw, E., Moldwin, M. B., Zesta, E., Biouele, C. M., Damtie, B., Mebrahtu, A., Rabiu, B., Valladares, C. F. & Stoneback, R. (2014). The longitudinal variability of equatorial electrojet and vertical drift velocity in the African and American sectors. Ann. Geophys., 32, 231–8, doi: 10.5194/angeo-32-231-2014.Google Scholar

Yumoto, K. (2006). MAGDAS project and its application for space weather. ILWS Workshop 2006, Goa, 19–24 February.Google Scholar

Yumoto, K., & CPMN Group (2001). Characteristics of Pi 2 magnetic pulsations observed at the CPMN stations: A review of the STEP results. Earth Planets Space, 53, 981–92.Google Scholar

References

Becken, M. & Ritter, O. (2012). Magnetotelluric studies at the San Andreas Fault Zone: Implications for the role of fluids. Surv. Geophys., 33, 65–105, doi: 10.1007/s10712-011-9144-0.Google Scholar

Constable, C. (2016). Earth’s electromagnetic environment. Surv. Geophys., 37, 27–45, doi: 10.1007/s10712-015-9351-1.Google Scholar

Everett, M. (2012). Theoretical developments in electromagnetic induction geophysics with selected applications in the near surface. Surv. Geophys., 33, 29–63, doi: 10.1007/s10712-011-9138-y.Google Scholar

Key, K. (2012). Marine electromagnetic studies of seafloor resources and tectonics. Surv. Geophys., 33, 135–67, doi: 10.1007/s10712-011-9139-x.Google Scholar

Kuvshinov, A. V. (2012). Deep electromagnetic studies from land, sea, and space: Progress status in the past 10 years. Surv. Geophys., 33, 169–209, doi: 10.1007/s10712-011-9118-2.Google Scholar

Ledo, J. (2006). 2-D versus 3-D magnetotelluric data interpretation. Surv. Geophys., 27, 511–43, doi: 10.1007/s10712-005-1757-8.Google Scholar

Miensopust, M. (2017). Application of 3-D electromagnetic inversion in practice: Challenges, pitfalls and solution approaches. Surv. Geophys., 38, 869–933, doi: 10.1007/s10712-017-9435-1.Google Scholar

Muñoz, G. (2014). Exploring for geothermal resources with electromagnetic methods. Surv. Geophys., 35, 101–22, doi: 10.1007/s10712-013-9236-0.Google Scholar

Neska, A. (2016). Conductivity anomalies in Central Europe. Surv. Geophys., 37, 5–26, doi: 10.1007/s10712-015-9349-8.Google Scholar

Patro, P. (2017). Magnetotelluric studies for hydrocarbon and geothermal resources: Examples from the Asian region. Surv. Geophys., 38, 1005–41, doi: 10.1007/s10712-017-9439-x.Google Scholar

Selway, K. (2014). On the causes of electrical conductivity anomalies in tectonically stable lithosphere. Surv. Geophys., 35, 219–57, doi: 10.1007/s10712-013-9235-1.Google Scholar

Smith, R. (2014). Electromagnetic induction methods in mining geophysics from 2008 to 2012. Surv. Geophys., 35, 123–56, doi: 10.1007/s10712-013-9227-1.Google Scholar

Strack, K. (2014). Future directions of electromagnetic methods for hydrocarbon applications. Surv. Geophys., 35, 157–77, doi: 10.1007/s10712-013-9237-z.Google Scholar

Streich, R. (2016). Controlled-source electromagnetic approaches for hydrocarbon exploration and monitoring on land. Surv. Geophys., 37, 47–80, doi: 10.1007/s10712-015-9336-0.Google Scholar

Tezkan, B. (1999). A review of environmental applications of quasi-stationary electromagnetic techniques. Surv. Geophys., 20, 279–308, doi: 10.1023/A:1006669218545.Google Scholar

Unsworth, M. (2010). Magnetotelluric studies of active continent-continent collisions. Surv. Geophys., 31, 137–61, doi: 10.1007/s10712-009-9086-y.Google Scholar

Weckmann, U. (2012). Making and breaking of a continent: following the scent of geodynamic imprints on the African continent using electromagnetics. Surv. Geophys., 33, 107–34, doi: 10.1007/s10712-011-9147-x.Google Scholar

Zang, L. (2017). A review of recent developments in the study of regional lithospheric electrical structure of the Asian continent. Surv. Geophys., 38, 1043–96, doi: 10.1007/s10712-017-9439-x.Google Scholar

References

Allan, W., Poulter, E. M. & White, S. P. (1986). Hydromagnetic wave coupling in the magnetosphere: Plasmapause effects on impulse-excited resonances. Planet. Space Sci., 34, 1189–1200.Google Scholar

Allan, W. & Poulter, E. M. (1992). ULF waves-their relationship to the structure of the Earth’s magnetosphere. Rep. Prog. Phys., 55, 533–98.Google Scholar

Auster, H. U. (2008). How to measure Earth’s magnetic field. Phys. Today, 61, 76–77.Google Scholar

Baumjohann, W. & Treumann, R. A. (2012). Basic Space Plasma Physics, rev. edn., Imperial College Press, London.Google Scholar

Campbell, W. H. (1997). Introduction to Geomagnetic Fields, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar

Chen, C. H. K., Horbury, T. S., Schekochihin, A. A., Wicks, R. T., Alexandrova, O. & Mitchell, J. (2010). Anisotropy of solar wind turbulence between ion and electron scales. Phys. Rev. Lett., 104, 255002, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.255002.Google Scholar

Chi, P.J. & Russell, C. T. (2001). On two methods using magnetometer-array data for studying magnetic pulsations. Terrestrial Atmos. Ocean Sci., 12, 649–62.Google Scholar

Clausen, L. B. N., Yeoman, T. K., Fear, R. C., Behlke, R., Lucek, E. A. & Engebretson, M. J. (2009). First simultaneous measurements of waves generated at the bow shock in the solar wind, the magnetosphere and on the ground. Ann. Geophys., 27, 357–71.Google Scholar

Crooker, N. U., Feynman, J. & Gosling, J. T. (1977). On the high correlation between long-term averages of solar wind speed and geomagnetic activity. J. Geophys. Res., 82, 1933–7.Google Scholar

Desai, M. I., Mason, G. M., Müller-Mellin, R., Korth, A., Mall, U., Dwyer, J. R. & von Rosenvinge, T. T. (2008). The spatial distribution of upstream ion events from the Earth’s bow shock measured by ACE, Wind, and STEREO. J. Geophys. Res., 113, A08103, doi: 10.1029/2007JA012909.Google Scholar

Dimmock, A. P., Nykyri, K. & Pulkkinen, T. I. (2014). A statistical study of magnetic field fluctuations in the dayside magnetosheath and their dependence on upstream solar wind conditions. J. Geophys. Res., A119, 6231–48, doi: 10.1002/2014JA020009.Google Scholar

Engebretson, M. J., Zanetti, L. J., Potemra, T. A., Baumjohann, W., Lühr, H. & Acuña, M. H. (1987). Simultaneous observation of Pc 3–4 pulsations in the solar wind and in the Earth’s magnetosphere. J. Geophys. Res., 92, 10,053–62.Google Scholar

Feynman, J. (1982). Geomagnetic and solar wind cycles, 1900–1975. J. Geophys. Res., 87, 6153–62.Google Scholar

Garrett, H. B., Dessler, A. J. & Hill, T. W. (1974). Influence of solar wind variability on geomagnetic activity. J. Geophys. Res., 79, 4603–10.Google Scholar

Goldstein, M. L., Eastwood, J. P., Treumann, R. A., Lucek, E. A., Pickett, J. & Décréau, P. (2005). The near-Earth solar wind. Space Sci. Rev., 118, 7–39.Google Scholar

Gonzalez, W. D., Tsurutani, B. T. & Clúa de Gonzalez, A. L. (1999). Interplanetary origin of geomagnetic storms. Space Sci. Rev., 88, 529–62.Google Scholar

Heilig, B., Lühr, H. & Rother, M. (2007). Comprehensive study of ULF upstream waves observed in the topside ionosphere by CHAMP and on the ground. Ann. Geophys., 25, 737–54.Google Scholar

Hirshberg, J. & Colburn, D. S. (1969). Interplanetary field and geomagnetic variations – a unified view. Planet. Space Sci., 17, 1183–1205.Google Scholar

Horbury, T. S., Wicks, R. T. & Chen, C. H. K. (2011). Anisotropy in space plasma turbulence: solar wind observations. Space Sci. Rev., 172, 325–42, doi: 10.1007/s11214-011-9821-9.Google Scholar

Kappler, K. N., Morrison, H. F. & Egbert, G. D. (2010). Long-term monitoring of ULF electromagnetic fields at Parkfield, California. J. Geophys. Res., 115, B04406, doi: 10.1029/2009JB006421.Google Scholar

Keiling, A. D., Lee, H. & Nakariakov, V. (eds.) (2016). Low-Frequency Waves in Space Plasmas. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC.Google Scholar

Kepko, L., Spence, H. E. & Singer, H. J. (2002). ULF waves in the solar wind as direct drivers of magnetospheric pulsations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1197, doi: 10.1029/2001GL014405.Google Scholar

Kepko, L. & Spence, H. E. (2003). Observations of discrete, global magnetospheric oscillations directly driven by solar wind density variations. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 1257, doi: 10.1029/2002JA009676.Google Scholar

Kivelson, M. G., Cao, M., McPherron, R. L. & Walker, R. J. (1997). A possible signature of magnetic cavity mode oscillations in ISEE spacecraft observations. J. Geomagn. Geoelectr., 49, 1079–98.Google Scholar

Lee, D. H. & Lysak, R. L. (1991). Monochromatic ULF wave excitation in the dipole magnetosphere. J. Geophys. Res., A96, 5811–17.Google Scholar

Le Mouël, J. L., Kossobokov, V. & Courtillot, V. (2005). On long-term variations of simple geomagnetic indices and slow changes in magnetospheric currents: The emergence of anthropogenic global warming after 1990? Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 232, 273–86, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2004.07.046.Google Scholar

Mathie, R. A., Menk, F. W., Mann, I. R. & Orr, D. (1999). Discrete field line resonances and the Alfvén continuum in the outer magnetosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 659–62.Google Scholar

Mayaud, P. N. (1980). Derivation, Meaning, and Use of Geomagnetic Indices. Geophysical Monograph 22. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC.Google Scholar

McPherron, R. L. (2005). Magnetic pulsations: Their sources and relation to solar wind and geomagnetic activity. Surv. Geophys., 26, 545–92.Google Scholar

Menk, F. W. (1988). Spectral structure of mid-latitude Pc3-4 geomagnetic pulsations. J. Geomagn. Geoelectr., 40, 33–61.Google Scholar

Menk, F. W., Waters, C. L. & Fraser, B. J. (2000). Field line resonances and waveguide modes at low latitudes 1. Observations. J. Geophys. Res., A105, 7747–61.Google Scholar

Menk, F. W., Yeoman, T. K., Wright, D. M., Lester, M. & Honary, F. (2003). High-latitude observations of impulse-driven ULF pulsations in the ionosphere and on the ground. Ann. Geophys., 21, 559–76.Google Scholar

Menk, F. W. & Waters, C. L. (2013). Magnetoseismology. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany.Google Scholar

Qian, L. Y., Burns, A. G., Solomon, S. C. & Chamberlin, P. C. (2012). Solar flare impacts on ionospheric electrodyamics. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L06101, doi: 10.1029/2012GL051102.Google Scholar

Perri, S., Yordanova, E., Carbone, V., Veltri, P., Sorriso-Valvo, L., Bruno, R. & André, M. (2009). Magnetic turbulence in space plasmas: Scale-dependent effects of anisotropy, J. Geophys. Res., 114, A02102, doi: 10.1029/2008JA013491.Google Scholar

Pham Thi Thu, H., Amory-Mazaudier, C. & Le Huy, M. (2011). Sq field characteristics at Phu Thuy, Vietnam, during solar cycle 23: Comparisons with Sq field in other longitude sectors. Ann. Geophys., 29, 1–17, doi: 10.5194/angeo-29-1-2011.Google Scholar

Plaschke, F., Glassmeier, K. H., Sibeck, D. G., Auster, H. U., Constantinescu, O. D., Angelopoulos, V. & Magnes, W. (2009). Magnetopause surface oscillation frequencies at different solar wind conditions. Ann. Geophys., 27, 4521–32.Google Scholar

Poulter, E. M. & Nielsen, E. (1982). The hydromagnetic oscillation of individual shells of the geomagnetic field. J. Geophys. Res., 87, 10432–8.Google Scholar

Potapov, A. S. (2013). ULF wave activity in high-speed streams of the solar wind: Impact on the magnetosphere. J. Geophys. Res., 118, 6465–77, doi: 10.1002/2013JA019119.Google Scholar

Potemra, T. A., Lühr, H., Zanetti, L. J., Takahashi, K., Erlandson, R. E., Marklund, G. T., Block, L. P., Blomberg, L. G. & Lepping, R. P. (1989). Multisatellite and ground-based observations of transient ULF waves. J. Geophys. Res., 94, 2543–54.Google Scholar

Russell, C. T. & Fleming, B. K. (1976). Magnetic pulsations as a probe of the interplanetary magnetic field: A test of the Borok B Index. J. Geophys. Res., 81, 5882–6.Google Scholar

Sakurai, T., Tonegawa, Y., Kitagawa, T., Yumoto, K., Yamamoto, T., Kokubun, S., Mukai, T. & Tsuruda, K. (1999). Dayside magnetopause Pc 3 and Pc 5 ULF waves observed by the GEOTAIL Satellite. Earth Planets Space, 51, 965–78.Google Scholar

Southwood, D. J. (1974). Some features of field line resonances in the magnetosphere. Planet. Space Sci., 22, 483–491.Google Scholar

St Louis, B. (2008). INTERMAGNET Technical Reference Manual, version 4.4. Internal publication. INTERMAGNET, Edinburgh.Google Scholar

Takahashi, K. & McPherron, R. L. (1982). Harmonic structure of Pc 3–4 pulsations. J. Geophys. Res., A87, 1504–16.Google Scholar

Takahashi, K., Chi, P. J., Denton, R. E. & Lysak, R. L. (eds.) (2006). Magnetospheric ULF Waves: Synthesis and New Directions, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC.Google Scholar

Takahashi, K. & Ukhorskiy, A. Y. (2008). Timing analysis of the relationship between solar wind parameters and geosynchronous Pc5 amplitude. J. Geophys. Res., A113, A12204, doi: 10.1029/2008JA013327.Google Scholar

Tamao, T. (1964). The structure of three-dimensional hydromagnetic waves in a uniform cold plasma. J. Geomagn. Geoelectr., 16, 89–114.Google Scholar

Troitskaya, V. A. & Gul’elmi, A. V. (1967). Geomagnetic micropulsations and diagnostics of the magnetosphere. Space Sci. Rev., 7, 689–768.Google Scholar

Tsurutani, B. T., Ho, C. M., Smith, E. J., Neugebauer, M., Goldstein, B. E., Mok, J. S., Arballo, J. K., Balogh, A., Southwood, D. J. & Feldman, W. C. (1994). The relationship between interplanetary discontinuities and Alfvén waves: Ulysses observations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 2267–70.Google Scholar

Tsurutani, B. T., Gonzalez, W. D., Gonzalez, A. L. C., Tang, F., Arballo, J. K. & Okada, M. (1995). Interplanetary origin of geomagnetic activity in the declining phase of the solar cycle. J. Geophys. Res., A100, 33.Google Scholar

Tsurutani, B.T., Gonzalez, W. D., Gonzalez, A. L. C., Guarnieri, F. L., Gopalswamy, N., Grande, M., Kamide, Y., Kasahara, Y., Lu, G., Mann, I., McPherron, R., Soraas, F. & Vasyliunas, V. (2006). Corotating solar wind streams and recurrent geomagnetic activity: A review. J. Geophys. Res., A111, A07S01, doi: 10.1029/2005JA011273.Google Scholar

Vellante, M., Lühr, H., Zhang, T. L., Wesztergom, V., Villante, U., De Lauretis, M., Piancatelli, A., Rother, M., Schwingenschuh, K., Koren, W. & Magnes, W. (2004). Ground/satellite signatures of field line resonance: A test of theoretical predictions. J. Geophys. Res., A109, A06210, doi: 10.1029/2004JA010392.Google Scholar

Verö, J., Zieger, B., Szendröi, J., Vellante, M., Stresgtik, J., Lühr, H., Best, A., Körmendi, A., Lichtenberger, J., Ménesi, T., Bencze, P., Märcz, F. & Wesztergom, V. (2000). Connections between whistlers and pulsation activity. Ann. Geophys., 18, 866–73.Google Scholar

Walker, D. M. (2002). Excitation of field line resonances by MHD waves originating in the solar wind. J. Geophys. Res., A107, 1481, doi: 10.1029/2001JA009188.Google Scholar

Weimer, D. R., Clauer, C. R., Engebretson, M. J., Hansen, T. L., Gleisner, H., Mann, I. & Yumoto, K. (2010). Statistical maps of geomagnetic perturbations as a function of the interplanetary magnetic field. J. Geophys. Res., 115, A10320, doi: 10.1029/2010JA015540.Google Scholar

Wilcox, J. M., Schatten, K. H. & Ness, N. F. (1967). Influence of interplanetary magnetic field and plasma on geomagnetic activity during quiet-Sun conditions. J. Geophys. Res., 72, 19–26.Google Scholar

Willson, R. C. & Hudson, H. S. (1991). The Sun’s luminosity over a complete solar cycle. Nature, 351, 42–4, doi: 10.1038/351042a0.Google Scholar

Xystouris, G., Sigala, E. & Mavromichalaki, H. (2014). A Complete Catalogue of High-Speed Solar Wind Streams during Solar Cycle 23. Solar Phys., 289, 995–1012, doi: 10.1007/s11207-013-0355-z.Google Scholar

Zieger, B. (1991). Long-term variations in pulsation activity and their relationship to solar wind velocity, geomagnetic activity and F2 region electron density. J. Geophys. Res., 96, 21,115–23.Google Scholar

Zimbardo, G., Greco, A., Sorriso-Valvo, L., Perri, S., Vörös, Z., Aburjania, G., Chargazia, K. & Alexandrova, O. (2010). Magnetic turbulence in the geospace environment. Space Sci. Rev., 156, 89–134, doi: 10.1007/s11214-010-9692-5.Google Scholar

References

Aubert, J. & Fournier, A., 2011. Inferring internal properties of Earth’s core dynamics and their evolution from surface observations and a numerical geodynamo model, Nonlinear Process. Geophys., 18, 657–74.Google Scholar

Backus, G., 1970. Inference from Inadequate and Inaccurate Data, I, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 65, 1–7.Google Scholar

Backus, G. E., 1988a. Bayesian inference in geomagnetism, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 92, 125–42.Google Scholar

Backus, G. E., 1988b. Comparing hard and soft prior bounds in geophysical inverse problems, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 94, 249–61.Google Scholar

Backus, G. E., 1989. Confidence set interference with a prior quadratic bound, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 97, 119–50.Google Scholar

Baerenzung, J., 2018. Sequential assimilation of the Earths magnetic field, 16. Symposium on Study of the Earth’s Deep Interior.Google Scholar

Baratchart, L. & Gerhards, C., 2017. On the recovery of core and crustal components of geomagnetic potential fields. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar

Beggan, C. D., Saarimäki, J., Whaler, K. A. & Simons, F. J., 2013. Spectral and spatial decomposition of lithospheric magnetic field models using spherical Slepian functions, Geophys. J. Int., 193, 136–48.Google Scholar

Cain, J. C., Wang, Z., Kluth, C. & Schmitz, D. R., 1989. Derivation of a geomagnetic model to n = 63, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 97, 431–41.Google Scholar

Calderwood, A., Roberts, P. & Jones, C., 2003. Energy fluxes and ohmic dissipation in the Earth’s core, in Earth’s Core and Lower Mantle, pp. 100–129, ed. Zhang, K., Soward, A. & Jones, C., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.Google Scholar

Chambodut, A., Panet, I., Mandea, M., Diament, M., Holschneider, M. & Jamet, O., 2005. Wavelet frames: An alternative to spherical harmonic representation of potential fields, Geophys. J. Int., 163, 875–99.Google Scholar

Chapman, S. & Ferraro, V. C. A., 1940. The theory of the first phase of a geomagnetic storm, J. Geophys. Res., 45, 245.Google Scholar

Chapman, S. & Ferraro, V. C. A., 1941. The geomagnetic ring current: I. Its radial stability, J. Geophys. Res., 46, 1.Google Scholar

Chiao, L.-Y., Chen, Y.-N. & Gung, Y., 2014. Constructing empirical resolution diagnostics for kriging and minimum curvature gridding, J. Geophys. Res., 119, 3939–54.Google Scholar

Donoho, D. L., 1988. One-sided inference about functionals of a density, Ann. Stat., 16, 1390–1420.Google Scholar

Finlay, C. C., Lesur, V., Thébault, E., Vervelidou, F., Morschhauser, A. & Shore, R., 2017. Challenges handling magnetospheric and ionospheric signals in internal geomagnetic field modelling, Space Sci. Rev., 206, 157–89.Google Scholar

Finlay, C. C., Olsen, N., Kotsiaros, S., Gillet, N. & Tøffner-Clausen, L., 2016. Recent geomagnetic secular variation from Swarm and ground observatories as estimated in the CHAOS-6 geomagnetic field model, Earth Planets Space, 68, 112.Google Scholar

Fournier, A., Aubert, J. & Thebault, E., 2011. Inference on core surface flow from observations and 3-D dynamo modelling, Geophys. J. Int., 186, 118–36.Google Scholar

Fournier, A., Aubert, J. & Thébault, E., 2015. A candidate secular variation model for IGRF-12 based on Swarm data and inverse geodynamo modelling, Earth Planets Space, 67, 81.Google Scholar

Fournier, A., Hulot, G., Jault, D., Kuang, W., Tangborn, A., Gillet, N., Canet, E., Aubert, J. & Lhuillier, F., 2010. An introduction to data assimilation and predictability in geomagnetism, Space Sci. Rev., 155, 247–91.Google Scholar

Franklin, J. N., 1970. Well-posed stochastic extension of ill-posed problems, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 23, 125–8.Google Scholar

Gauss, C. F., 1839. Allgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, in Resultate aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins im Jahre 1838, pp. 1–57, ed. Gauss, C. F. & Weber, W., Leipzig.Google Scholar

Goossens, S., 2010. Applying spectral leakage corrections to gravity field determination from satellite tracking data, Geophys. J. Int., 181, 1459–72.Google Scholar

Gubbins, D., 1975. Can the Earth’s magnetic field be sustained by core oscillations?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 2, 409–12.Google Scholar

Gubbins, D., 1983. Geomagnetic field analysis – I. Stochastic inversion, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 73, 641–52.Google Scholar

Gubbins, D., 2004. Time Series Analysis and Inverse Theory for Geophysicists, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar

Gubbins, D. & Bloxham, J., 1985. Geomagnetic field analysis – III. Magnetic fields on the core-mantle boundary, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 80, 695–713.Google Scholar

Helffrich, G. & Kaneshima, S., 2010. Outer-core compositional stratification from observed core wave speed profiles, Nature, 468, 807–10.Google Scholar

Holme, R. & Bloxham, J., 1995. Alleviation of the Backus effect in geomagnetic field modelling, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 1641–4.Google Scholar

Holme, R. & Bloxham, J., 1996. The magnetic fields of Uranus and Neptune: Methods and models, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 2177–2200.Google Scholar

Holschneider, M., Lesur, V., Mauerberger, S. & Baerenzung, J., 2016. Correlation-based modeling and separation of geomagnetic field components, J. Geophys. Res., 121, 3142–60.Google Scholar

Jackson, A., Jonkers, A. R. T. & Walker, M. R., 2000. Four centuries of geomagnetic secular variation from historical records, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 358, 957–90.Google Scholar

Jackson, D. D., 1979. The use of a priori data to resolve nonuniqueness in linear inversion, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 57, 137–57.Google Scholar

Jekeli, C., 1996. Spherical harmonic analysis, aliasing, and filtering, J. Geod., 70, 214–23.Google Scholar

Kaneshima, S. & Matsuzawa, T., 2015. Stratification of Earth’s outermost core inferred from SmKS array data, Prog. Earth Planet. Sci., 2, 15.Google Scholar

Khokhlov, A., Hulot, G. & Le Mouel, J.-L., 1999. On the Backus effect – II, Geophys. J. Int., 137, 816–20.Google Scholar

Korte, M. & Constable, C. G., 2005. Continuous geomagnetic field models for the past 7 millennia: 2. CALS7 K, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 6, Q02H16, doi: 10.1029/2004GC000801.Google Scholar

Kotsiaros, S., Finlay, C. C. & Olsen, N., 2015. Use of along-track magnetic field differences in lithospheric field modelling, Geophys. J. Int., 200, 878–87.Google Scholar

Langel, R. A., 1987. The main geomagnetic field, in Geomagnetism, vol. 1, ed. Jacobs, J. A., chapter 4, Academic, San Diego, CA.Google Scholar

Langel, R. A. & Estes, R. H., 1985. Large-scale, near-field magnetic fields from external sources and the corresponding induced internal field, J. Geophys. Res., 90, 2487–94.Google Scholar

Lesur, V., Hamoudi, M., Choi, Y., Dyment, J. & Th´ebault, E., 2016. Building the second version of the World Digital Magnetic Anomaly Map (WDMAM), Earth Planets Space, 68, 27.Google Scholar

Lesur, V., Rother, M., Vervelidou, F., Hamoudi, M. & Th´ebault, E., 2013. Post-processing scheme for modelling the lithospheric magnetic field, Solid Earth, 4, 105–18.Google Scholar

Lesur, V., Wardinski, I., Baerenzung, J. & Holschneider, M., 2017. On the frequency spectra of the core magnetic field Gauss coefficients, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 2, 164–8.Google Scholar

Lesur, V., Wardinski, I. & Hamoudi, M., 2011. Third Version of the GFZ Reference Internal Magnetic Model: GRIMM-3, 25th IUGG General Assembly, Melbourne, Australia.Google Scholar

Lesur, V., Wardinski, I., Hamoudi, M. & Rother, M., 2010. The second generation of the GFZ Reference Internal Magnetic Model: GRIMM-2, Earth Planets Space, 62, 765–73.Google Scholar

Lesur, V., Whaler, K. A. & Wardinski, I., 2015. Are geomagnetic data consistent with stably stratified flow at the core-mantle boundary?, Geophys. J. Int., 201, 929–46.Google Scholar

Levenberg, K., 1944. A method for the solution of certain non-linear problems in least squares, Q. Appl. Math., 2, 164–8.Google Scholar

Livermore, P. W., Hollerbach, R. & Finlay, C. C., 2017. An accelerating high-latitude jet in Earth’s core, Nat. Geosci., 10, 62–8.Google Scholar

Lowes, F. J., 1966. Mean-square values on sphere of spherical harmonic vector fields, J. Geophys. Res., 71, 2179.Google Scholar

Lowes, F. J. & Olsen, N., 2004. A more realistic estimate of the variances and systematic errors in spherical harmonic geomagnetic field models, Geophys. J. Int., 157, 1027–44.Google Scholar

Mauersberger, P., 1956. Das Mittel der Energiedichte des geomagnetischen Hauptfeldes an der Erdoberfläche und seine säkulare Änderung, Gerlands Beiträge Geophys., 65, 207–15.Google Scholar

Maus, S. & Haak, V., 2003. Magnetic field annihilators: Invisible magnetization at the magnetic equator, Geophys. J. Int., 155, 509–13.Google Scholar

Maus, S. & Kuvshinov, A., 2004. Ocean tidal signals in observatory and satellite magnetic measurements, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, 15313.Google Scholar

Maus, S., Rother, M., Hemant, K., Stolle, C., Lühr, H., Kuvshinov, A. & Olsen, N., 2006. Earth’s lithospheric magnetic field determined to spherical harmonic degree 90 from CHAMP satellite measurements, Geophys. J. Int., 164, 319–30.Google Scholar

Maus, S., Yin, F., Lühr, H., Manoj, C., Rother, M., Rauberg, J., Michaelis, I., Stolle, C. & Müller, R. D., 2008. Resolution of direction of oceanic magnetic lineations by the sixth-generation lithospheric magnetic field model from CHAMP satellite magnetic measurements, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 9, Q07021.Google Scholar

McLeod, M. G., 1986. Stochastic processes on a sphere, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 43, 283–99.Google Scholar

McLeod, M. G., 1996. Spatial and temporal power spectra of the geomagnetic field, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 2745–64.Google Scholar

Menke, W., 1989. Geophysical Data Analysis: Discrete Inverse Theory, Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar

Olsen, N., Glassmeier, K.-H. & Jia, X., 2010a. Separation of the magnetic field into external and internal parts, Space Sci. Rev., 152, 135–57.Google Scholar

Olsen, N., Hulot, G., Lesur, V., Finlay, C. C., Beggan, C., Chul- liat, A., Sabaka, T. J., Floberghagen, R., Friis-Christensen, E., Haagmans, R., Kotsiaros, S., Lühr, H., Tøffner-Clausen, L. & Vigneron, P., 2015. The swarm initial field model for the 2014 geomagnetic field, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 1092–8.Google Scholar

Olsen, N., Lühr, H., Finlay, C. C., Sabaka, T. J., Michaelis, I., Rauberg, J. & Tøffner-Clausen, L., 2014. The CHAOS-4 geomagnetic field model, Geophys. J. Int., 197, 815–27.Google Scholar

Olsen, N., Mandea, M., Sabaka, T. J. & Tøffner-Clausen, L., 2010b. The CHAOS-3 geomagnetic field model and candidates for the 11th generation IGRF, Earth Planets Space, 62, 719–27.Google Scholar

Olsen, N., Sabaka, T. J. & Lowes, F., 2005. New parameterization of external and induced fields in geomagnetic field modeling, and a candidate model for IGRF 2005, Earth Planets Space, 57, 1141–9.Google Scholar

Ou, J., Du, A. & Finlay, C. C., 2017. Quasi-biennial oscillations in the geomagnetic field: Their global characteristics and origin, J. Geophys. Res., 122, 5043–58.Google Scholar

Sabaka, T. J., Olsen, N. & Langel, R. A., 2002. A comprehensive model of the quiet-time, near-Earth magnetic field: Phase 3, Geophys. J. Int., 151, 32–68.Google Scholar

Sabaka, T. J., Olsen, N. & Purucker, M. E., 2004. Extending comprehensive models of the Earth’s magnetic field with Ørsted and CHAMP data, Geophys. J. Int., 159, 521–47.Google Scholar

Sabaka, T. J., Olsen, N., Tyler, R. H. & Kuvshinov, A., 2015. CM5, a pre-Swarm comprehensive geomagnetic field model derived from over 12 yr of CHAMP, Ørsted, SAC-C and observatory data, Geophys. J. Int., 200, 1596–1626.Google Scholar

Sabaka, T. J., Tyler, R. H. & Olsen, N., 2016. Extracting ocean-generated tidal magnetic signals from Swarm data through satellite gradiometry, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 3237–45.Google Scholar

Schott, J. J. & Thébault, E., 2011. Modelling the Earths magnetic field from global to regional scales, in Geomagnetic Observations and Models, vol. 1, pp. 229–64, Springer, Netherlands.Google Scholar

Schwarte, J., Lühr, H. & Holme, R., 2003. Improved parameterization of external magnetic field from CHAMP measurements, in First CHAMP Mission Results for Gravity, Magnetic and Atmospheric Studies, pp. 240–44, Springer, Berlin.Google Scholar

Silva, L., Jackson, L. & Mound, J., 2012. Assessing the importance and expression of the 6 year geomagnetic oscillation, J. Geophys. Res., 117, 10101.Google Scholar

Spetzler, J. & Trampert, J., 2003. Implementing spectral leakage corrections in global surface wave tomography, Geophys. J. Int., 155, 532–8.Google Scholar

Stark, P. B., 1992. Inference in infinite-dimensional inverse problems: Discretization and duality, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 14055–82.Google Scholar

Stern, D. P., Langel, R. A. & Mead, G. D., 1980. Backus effect observed by Magsat, Geophys. Res. Lett., 7, 941–4.Google Scholar

Stockmann, R., Finlay, C. C. & Jackson, A., 2009. Imaging Earth’s crustal magnetic field with satellite data: A regularized spherical triangle tessellation approach, Geophys. J. Int., 179, 929–44.Google Scholar

Strang, G., 1988. Linear Algebra and Its Applications, Harbourt Brace Jovanovisch, San Diego.Google Scholar

Sugiura, M. & Kamei, T., 1991. Equatorial DST – index 1957–1986, IAGA Bull., 40.Google Scholar

Tarantola, A., 1987. Inverse Problem Theory: Methods for Data Fitting and Model Parameter Estimation, Elsevier, Amsterdam.Google Scholar

Thébault, E., Finlay, C. C., Alken, P., Beggan, C. D., Canet, E., Chulliat, A., Langlais, B., Lesur, V., Lowes, F. J., Manoj, C., Rother, M. & Schachtschneider, R., 2015. Evaluation of candidate geomagnetic field models for IGRF-12, Earth Planets Space, 67, 112.Google Scholar

Thébault, E., Langlais, B., Oliveira, J. S., Amit, H. & Leclercq, L., 2018. A time-averaged regional model of the Hermean magnetic field, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 276, 93–105.Google Scholar

Thébault, E., Lesur, V., Kauristie, K. & Shore, R., 2017. Magnetic field data correction in space for modelling the lithospheric magnetic field, Space Sci. Rev., 206, 191–223.Google Scholar

Thébault, E., Vervelidou, F., Lesur, V. & Hamoudi, M., 2012. The satellite along-track analysis in planetary magnetism, Geophys. J. Int., 188, 891–907.Google Scholar

Thomson, A. W. P. & Lesur, V., 2007. An improved geomagnetic data selection algorithm for global geomagnetic field modelling, Geophys. J. Int., 169, 951–63.Google Scholar

Trampert, J. & Snieder, R., 1996. Model estimations biased by truncated expansions: Possible artifacts in seismic tomography, Science, 271, 1257–60.Google Scholar

Tyler, R. H., Maus, S. & Lühr, H., 2003. Satellite observations of magnetic fields due to ocean tidal flow, Science, 299, 239–41.Google Scholar

Wardinski, I. & Lesur, V., 2012. An extended version of the C3 FM geomagnetic field model: Application of a continuous frozen-flux constraint, Geophys. J. Int., 189, 1409–29.Google Scholar

Whaler, K. A., 1980. Does the whole of the Earth’s core convect?, Nature, 287, 528–30.Google Scholar

Whaler, K. A. & Gubbins, D., 1981. Spherical harmonic analysis of the geomagnetic field: An example of a linear inverse problem, Geophys. J., 65, 645–93.Google Scholar

Wiese, D. N., Killett, B., Watkins, M. M. & Yuan, D.-N., 2016. Antarctic tides from GRACE satellite accelerations, J. Geophys. Res., 121, 2874–86.Google Scholar

Zhang, H. & Thurber, C. H., 2007. Estimating the model resolution matrix for large seismic tomography problems based on Lanczos bidiagonalization with partial reorthogonalization, Geophys. J. Int., 170, 337–45.Google Scholar

References

Abbo, L., Antonucci, E., Mikić, Z., Linker, J. A., Riley, P., Lonello, R. (2010), Characterization of the slow wind in the outer corona, Adv. Space Res., 46, 1400, doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2010.08.008.Google Scholar

Abbo, L., Ofman, L., Antiochos, S. K., Hansteen, V. H., Harra, L., Ko, Y.-K., Lapenta, G., Li, B., Riley, P., Strachan, L., von Steiger, R. and Wang, Y.-M. (2016), Slow solar wind: Observations and modeling, Space Science Reviews, 201, 55, doi: 10.1007/s11214-016-0264-1.Google Scholar

André, M., and Cully, C. M. (2012), Low-energy ions: A previously hidden solar system particle population, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L03101, doi: 10.1029/2011GL050242.Google Scholar

Artemyev, A. V., Petrukovich, A. A., Nakamura, R. and Zelenyi, L. M. (2011), Cluster statistics of thin current sheets in the Earth magnetotail: Specifics of the dawn flank, proton temperature profiles and electrostatic effects, J. Geophys. Res., 116, A09233, doi: 10.1029/2011JA016801.Google Scholar

Chi, Y., et al. (2016), Statistical study of the interplanetary coronal mass ejections from 1995 to 2015, Sol. Phys., 291, 2419, doi: 10.1007/s11207-016-0971-5.Google Scholar

Cnossen, I., Wiltberger, M. and Ouellette, J. E. (2012), The effects of seasonal and diurnal variations in the Earth’s magnetic dipole orientation on solar wind–magnetosphere–ionosphere coupling, J. Geophys. Res., 117, A11211, doi: 10.1029/2012JA017825.Google Scholar

Crooker, N. U. (1979), Dayside merging and cusp geometry, J. Geophys. Res., 84(A3), 951–9, doi: 10.1029/JA084iA03p00951.Google Scholar

Dasso, S., Mandrini, C. H., Démoulin, P. and Luoni, M. L. (2006), A new model-independent method to compute magnetic helicity in magnetic clouds, A&A, 455, 349–59, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20064806.Google Scholar

Davies, J. A., Perry, C. H., Trines, R. M. G. M., Harrison, R. A., Lugaz, N., Möstl, C., Liu, Y. D. and Steed, K. (2013), Establishing a stereoscopic technique for determining the kinematic properties of solar wind transients based on a generalized self-similarly expanding circular geometry, Astrophys. J., 777(2), doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/777/2/167.Google Scholar

Démoulin, P., Janvier, M. and Dasso, S. (2016), Magnetic flux and helicity of magnetic clouds, Sol. Phys., 291, 531, doi: 10.1007/s11207-015-0836-3.Google Scholar

Dungey, J. W. (1961), Interplanetary magnetic field and the auroral zones, Phys. Rev. Lett., 6(2), 7–48, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.6.47.Google Scholar

Dungey, J. W. (1963), The structure of the exosphere or adventures in velocity space, in Geophysics: The Earth’s Environment, edited by Dewitt, C., Hieblot, J., and Lebeau, A., pp. 505–50, Gordon and Breach, New York.Google Scholar

Dunlop, M. W., Balogh, A., Glassmeier, K.-H. and Robert, P. (2002), Four-point Cluster application of magnetic field analysis tools: The Curlometer, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 1384, doi: 10.1029/2001JA005088.Google Scholar

Dušík, Š., Granko, G., Šafránková, J., Němeček, Z. and Jelínek, K. (2010), IMF cone angle control of the magnetopause location: Statistical study, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L19103, doi: 10.1029/2010GL044965.Google Scholar

Echer, E., Tsurutani, B. T. and Gonzalez, W. D. (2013), Interplanetary origins of moderate (−100 nT < Dst ≤ −50 nT) geomagnetic storms during solar cycle 23 (1996–2008), J. Geophys. Res., 118, 385–92, doi: 10.1029/2012JA018086.Google Scholar

Fuselier, S. A., Trattner, K. J. and Petrinec, S. M. (2011), Antiparallel and component reconnection at the dayside magnetopause, J. Geophys. Res., 116, A10227, doi: 10.1029/2011JA016888.Google Scholar

Gonzalez, W.D., and Mozer, F. S. (1974). A quantitative model for the potential resulting from reconnection with an arbitrary interplanetary magnetic field. J. Geophys. Res., 79, doi: 10.1029/JA079i028p04186.Google Scholar

Good, S. W., and Forsyth, R. J. (2016), Interplanetary coronal mass ejections observed by MESSENGER and Venus Express, Sol. Phys., 291, 239, doi: 10.1007/s11207-015-0828-3.Google Scholar

Gopalswamy, N., Akiyama, S., Yashiro, S., Xie, H., Mäkelä, P. and Michalek, G. (2014), Anomalous expansion of coronal mass ejections during solar cycle 24 and its space weather implications, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 2673–80, doi: 10.1002/2014GL059858.Google Scholar

Gopalswamy, N., Mäkelä, P., Xie, H., Akiyama, S. and Yashiro, S. (2009), CME interactions with coronal holes and their interplanetary consequences, J. Geophys. Res., 114, A00A22, doi: 10.1029/2008JA013686.Google Scholar

Gopalswamy, N., Yashiro, S., Xie, H., Akiyama, S. and Mäkelä, P. (2015), Properties and geoeffectiveness of magnetic clouds during solar cycles 23 and 24, J. Geophys. Res., 120, 9221–45, doi: 10.1002/2015JA021446.Google Scholar

Gulisano, A. M., Démoulin, P., Dasso, S. and Rodriguez, L. (2012), Expansion of magnetic clouds in the outer heliosphere, A&A, 543, A107, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201118748.Google Scholar

Haaland, S., and Gjerloev, J. (2013), On the relation between asymmetries in the ring current and magnetopause current, J. Geophys. Res., 118, 7593–7604, doi: 10.1002/2013JA019345.Google Scholar

Haaland, S., Reistad, J., Tenfjord, P., Gjerloev, J., Maes, L., DeKeyser, J., Maggiolo, R., Anekallu, C. and Dorville, N. (2014), Characteristics of the flank magnetopause: Cluster observations, J. Geophys. Res., 119, 9019–37, doi: 10.1002/2014JA020539.Google Scholar

Hoilijoki, S., Souza, V. M., Walsh, B. M., Janhunen, P. and Palmroth, M. (2014), Magnetopause reconnection and energy conversion as influenced by the dipole tilt and the IMF Bx, J. Geophys. Res., 119, 4484–94, doi: 10.1002/2013JA019693.Google Scholar

Hwang, K.-J., Goldstein, M. L., Kuznetsova, M. M., Wang, Y., Viñas, A. F. and Sibeck, D. G. (2012), The first in situ observation of Kelvin–Helmholtz waves at high-latitude magnetopause during strongly dawnward interplanetary magnetic field conditions, J. Geophys. Res., 117, A08233, doi: 10.1029/2011JA017256.Google Scholar

Hwang, K.‐J., Kuznetsova, M. M., Sahraoui, F., Goldstein, M. L., Lee, E. and Parks, G. K. (2011), Kelvin–Helmholtz waves under southward interplanetary magnetic field, J. Geophys. Res., 116, A08210, doi: 10.1029/2011JA016596.Google Scholar

Iju, T., Tokumaru, M. and Fujiki, K. (2013), Radial speed evolution of interplanetary coronal mass ejections during solar cycle 23, Sol. Phys., 288, 331, doi: 10.1007/s11207-013-0297-5.Google Scholar

Isavnin, A., Vourlidas, A. and Kilpua, E. K. J. (2014), Three-dimensional evolution of flux-rope CMEs and its relation to the local orientation of the heliospheric current sheet, Sol. Phys., 289, 2141, doi: 10.1007/s11207-013-0468-4.Google Scholar

Janvier, M., Démoulin, P. and Dasso, S. (2013), Global axis shape of magnetic clouds deduced from the distribution of their local axis orientation, A&A, 556, A50, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201321442.Google Scholar

Kilpua, E. K. J., Luhmann, J. G., Gosling, J., Li, Y., Elliott, H., Russell, C.T., Jian, L., Galvin, A. B., Larson, D., Schroeder, P., Simunac, K. and Petrie, G. (2009), Small solar wind transients and their connection to the large-scale coronal structure, Sol. Phys., 256, 327, doi: 10.1007/s11207-009-9366-1.Google Scholar

Kilpua, E. K. J., Olspert, N., Grigorievskiy, A., Käpylä, M. J., Tanskanen, E. I., Miyahara, H., Kataoka, R., Pelt, J. and Liu, Y. D. (2015), Statistical study of strong and extreme geomagnetic disturbances and solar cycle characteristics, Astrophys. J., 806(2), doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/806/2/272.Google Scholar

Kim, R.-S., Gopalswamy, N., Cho, K.-S., Moon, Y.-J. and Yashiro, S. (2013), Propagation characteristics of CMEs associated with magnetic clouds and ejecta, Sol. Phys., 284, 77–88, doi: 10.1007/s11207-013-0230-y.Google Scholar

Kitamura, N., et al. (2016), Shift of the magnetopause reconnection line to the winter hemisphere under southward IMF conditions: Geotail and MMS observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 5581–8, doi: 10.1002/2016GL069095.Google Scholar

Kliem, B., Török, T. and Thompson, W. T. (2012), A parametric study of erupting flux rope rotation: Modeling the ‘cartwheel CME’ on 9 April 2008, Sol. Phys., 281, 137, doi: 10.1007/s11207-012-9990-z.Google Scholar

Komar, C. M., Fermo, R. L. and Cassak, P. A. (2015), Comparative analysis of dayside magnetic reconnection models in global magnetosphere simulations, J. Geophys. Res., 120, 276–94, doi: 10.1002/2014JA020587.Google Scholar

Lavraud, B. and Borovsky, J. E. (2008), Altered solar wind–magnetosphere interaction at low Mach numbers: Coronal mass ejections, J. Geophys. Res., 113, A00B08, doi: 10.1029/2008JA013192.Google Scholar

Lavraud, B., et al. (2013), Asymmetry of magnetosheath flows and magnetopause shape during low Alfvén Mach number solar wind, J. Geophys. Res., 118, 1089–1100, doi: 10.1002/jgra.50145.Google Scholar

Lavraud, B., Ruffenach, A., Rouillard, A. P., Kajdic, P., Manchester, W. B. and Lugaz, N. (2014), Geo-effectiveness and radial dependence of magnetic cloud erosion by magnetic reconnection, J. Geophys. Res., 119, 26–35, doi: 10.1002/2013JA019154.Google Scholar

Lee, D.-Y., Kim, H.-S., Ohtani, S. and Park, M. Y. (2012), Statistical characteristics of plasma flows associated with magnetic dipolarizations in the near-tail region of r < 12 RE, J. Geophys. Res., 117, A01207, doi: 10.1029/2011JA017246.Google Scholar

Lepping, R. C., Wu, C.-C., Berdichevsky, D.B. and Szabo, A. (2011), Magnetic clouds at/near the 2007–2009 solar minimum: Frequency of occurrence and some unusual properties, Sol. Phys., 274, 345, doi: 10.1007/s11207-010-9646-9.Google Scholar

Lin, D., Wang, C., Li, W., Tang, B., Guo, X. and Peng, Z. (2014), Properties of Kelvin–Helmholtz waves at the magnetopause under northward interplanetary magnetic field: Statistical study, J. Geophys. Res., 119, 7485–94, doi: 10.1002/2014JA020379.Google Scholar

Liu, Y. D., et al. (2013), On Sun-to-Earth propagation of coronal mass ejections, Astrophys. J., 769(1), doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/769/1/45.Google Scholar

Liu, Y. D., Yang, Z., Wang, R., Luhmann, J. G., Richardson, J. D. and Lugaz, N. (2014), Sun-to-Earth characteristics of two coronal mass ejections interacting near 1 AU: Formation of a complex ejecta and generation of a two-step geomagnetic storm, Astrophys. J. Lett., 793(2), doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/793/2/L41.Google Scholar

Lugaz, N., Farrugia, C. J., Davies, J. A., Möstl, C., Davis, C. J., Roussev, I. I. and Temmer, M. (2012), The deflection of the two interacting coronal mass ejections of 2010 May 23–24 as revealed by combined in situ measurements and heliospheric imaging, Astrophys. J., 759(1), doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/759/1/68.Google Scholar

Lynch, B. J., Antiochos, S. K., Li, Y., Luhmann, J. G. and DeVore, C. R. (2009), Rotation of coronal mass ejections during eruption, Astrophys. J., 697(2), doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/697/2/1918.Google Scholar

McComas, D. J., Elliott, H. A., Schwadron, N. A., Gosling, J. T., Skoug, R. M. and Goldstein, B. E. (2003), The three-dimensional solar wind around solar maximum, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1517, doi: 10.1029/2003GL017136.Google Scholar

McComas, D. J., Angold, N., Elliott, H. A., Livadiotis, G., Schwadron, N. A., Skoug, R. M. and Smith, C. W., Weakest solar wind of the space age and the current ‘mini’ solar maximum (2013), Astrophys. J., 779(1), doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/779/1/2.Google Scholar

Marchaudon, A., Cerisier, J.-C., Bosqued, J.-M., Dunlop, M. W., Wild, J. A., Décréau, P. M., Förster, E., Fontaine, D. and Laakso, H. (2004), Transient plasma injections in the dayside magnetosphere: One-to-one correlated observations by Cluster and SuperDARN, Ann. Geophys., 22, 141–58, doi: 10.5194/angeo-22-141-2004.Google Scholar

Mitsakou, E., and Moussas, X. (2014), Statistical study of ICMEs and their sheaths during solar cycle 23 (1996–2008), Sol. Phys., 289, 3137, doi: 10.1007/s11207-014-0505-y.Google Scholar

Möstl, C., et al. (2014), Connecting speeds, directions and arrival times of 22 coronal mass ejections from the Sun to 1 AU, Astrophys. J., 787(2), doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/787/2/119.Google Scholar

Möstl, C., et al. (2015), Strong coronal channelling and interplanetary evolution of a solar storm up to Earth and Mars, Nat. Commun., 6(7135), doi: 10.1038/ncomms8135.Google Scholar

Möstl, C., Temmer, M., Rollett, T., Farrugia, C. J., Liu, Y., Veronig, A. M., Leitner, M., Galvin, A. B. and Biernat, H. K. (2010), STEREO and Wind observations of a fast ICME flank triggering a prolonged geomagnetic storm on 5–7 April 2010, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L24103, doi: 10.1029/2010GL045175.Google Scholar

Nykyri, K., and Otto, A. (2001), Plasma transport at the magnetospheric boundary due to reconnection in Kelvin‐Helmholtz vortices, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 3565, doi: 10.1029/2001GL013239.Google Scholar

Owens, M. J., Cargill, P. J., Pagel, C., Siscoe, G. L. and Crooker, N. U. (2005), Characteristic magnetic field and speed properties of interplanetary coronal mass ejections and their sheath regions. J. Geophys. Res., 110, A01105, doi: 10.1029/2004JA010814.Google Scholar

Owens, M. J., Démoulin, P., Savani, N. P., Lavraud, B. and Ruffenach, A. (2012), Implications of non-cylindrical flux ropes for magnetic cloud reconstruction techniques and the interpretation of double flux rope events, Sol. Phys., 278, 435, doi: 10.1007/s11207-012-9939-2.Google Scholar

Palmroth, M., Fear, R. C. and Honkonen, I. (2012), Magnetopause energy transfer dependence on the interplanetary magnetic field and the Earth’s magnetic dipole axis orientation, Ann. Geophys., 30, 515–26, doi: 10.5194/angeo-30-515-2012.Google Scholar

Parker, E. N. (1958), Dynamics of the interplanetary gas and magnetic fields, Astrophys. J., 128, 664.Google Scholar

Paularena, K. I., Richardson, J. D., Kolpak, M. A., Jackson, C. R. and Siscoe, G. L. (2001), A dawn–dusk density asymmetry in Earth’s magnetosheath, J. Geophys. Res., 106(A11), 25377–25394, doi: 10.1029/2000JA000177.Google Scholar

Petrukovich, A., Artemyev, A., Vasko, I., Nakamura, R. and Zelenyi, L. (2015), Current sheets in the Earth magnetotail: Plasma and magnetic field structure with Cluster project observations, Space Sci. Rev., 188, 311–37, doi: 10.1007/s11214-014-0126-7.Google Scholar

Pi, G., Shue, J.-H., Grygorov, K., Li, H.-M., Němeček, Z., Šafránková, J., Yang, Y.-H. and Wang, K. (2017), Evolution of the magnetic field structure outside the magnetopause under radial IMF conditions, J. Geophys. Res., 122, 4051–63, doi: 10.1002/2015JA021809.Google Scholar

Rong, Z. J., Wan, W. X., Shen, C., Li, X., Dunlop, M. W., Petrukovich, A. A., Zhang, T. L. and Lucek, E. (2011), Statistical survey on the magnetic structure in magnetotail current sheets, J. Geophys. Res., 116, A09218, doi: 10.1029/2011JA016489.Google Scholar

Rouillard, A. P., et al. (2010a), Intermittent release of transients in the slow solar wind: 1. Remote sensing observations, J. Geophys. Res., 115, A04103, doi: 10.1029/2009JA014471.Google Scholar

Rouillard, A. P., et al. (2010b), Intermittent release of transients in the slow solar wind: 2. In situ evidence, J. Geophys. Res., 115, A04104, doi: 10.1029/2009JA014472.Google Scholar

Ruffenach, A., et al. (2015), Statistical study of magnetic cloud erosion by magnetic reconnection, J. Geophys. Res., 120, 43–60, doi: 10.1002/2014JA020628.Google Scholar

Ruffenach, A., et al. (2012), Multispacecraft observation of magnetic cloud erosion by magnetic reconnection during propagation, J. Geophys. Res., 117, A09101, doi: 10.1029/2012JA017624.Google Scholar

Samsonov, A. A., Němeček, Z., Šafránková, J. and Jelínek, K. (2012), Why does the subsolar magnetopause move sunward for radial interplanetary magnetic field?, J. Geophys. Res., 117, A05221, doi: 10.1029/2011JA017429.Google Scholar

Sanchez-Diaz, E., Rouillard, A. P., Lavraud, B., Segura, K., Tao, C., Pinto, R., Sheeley, N. R. Jr and Plotnikov, I. (2016), The very slow solar wind: Properties, origin and variability, J. Geophys. Res., 121, 2830–41, doi: 10.1002/2016JA022433.Google Scholar

Shen, C., Li, X., Dunlop, M., Liu, Z. X., Balogh, A., Baker, D. N., Hapgood, M. and Wang, X. (2003), Analyses on the geometrical structure of magnetic field in the current sheet based on Cluster measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 108(A5), 1168, doi: 10.1029/2002JA009612.Google Scholar

Sergeev, V. A., Angelopoulos, V. and Nakamura, R. (2012), Recent advances in understanding substorm dynamics, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L05101, doi: 10.1029/2012GL050859.Google Scholar

Sergeev, V., Runov, A., Baumjohann, W., Nakamura, R., Zhang, T. L., Balogh, A., Louarn, P., Sauvaud, J. and Reme, H. (2004), Orientation and propagation of current sheet oscillations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, 5807, doi: 10.1029/2003GL019346.Google Scholar

Suvorova, A. V., and Dmitriev, A. V. (2015), Magnetopause inflation under radial IMF: Comparison of models, Earth Space Sci., 2, 107–14, doi: 10.1002/2014EA000084.Google Scholar

Suvorova, A. V., Shue, J.‐H., Dmitriev, A. V., Sibeck, D. G., McFadden, J. P., Hasegawa, H., Ackerson, K., Jelínek, K., Šafránková, J. and Němeček, Z. (2010), Magnetopause expansions for quasi‐radial interplanetary magnetic field: THEMIS and Geotail observations, J. Geophys. Res., 115, A10216, doi: 10.1029/2010JA015404.Google Scholar

Taylor, M. G., et al. (2012), Spatial distribution of rolled up Kelvin–Helmholtz vortices at Earth’s dayside and flank magnetopause, Ann. Geophys., 30, 1025–35, doi: 10.5194/angeo-30-1025-2012.Google Scholar

Toledo-Redondo, S., André, M., Vaivads, A., Khotyaintsev, Yu. V., Lavraud, B., Graham, D. B., Divin, A. and Aunai, N. (2016), Cold ion heating at the dayside magnetopause during magnetic reconnection, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 58–66, doi: 10.1002/2015GL067187.Google Scholar

Toledo-Redondo, S., Vaivads, A., André, M. and Khotyaintsev, Y. V. (2015), Modification of the Hall physics in magnetic reconnection due to cold ions at the Earth’s magnetopause, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 6146–54, doi: 10.1002/2015GL065129.Google Scholar

Trattner, K. J., Mulcock, J. S., Petrinec, S. M. and Fuselier, S. A. (2007), Probing the boundary between anti-parallel and component reconnection during southwards interplanetary magnetic field conditions, J. Geophys. Res., 112, A08210, doi: 10.1029/2007JA012270.Google Scholar

Trattner, K. J., Petrinec, S. M., Fuselier, S. A. and Phan, T. D. (2012), The location of reconnection at the magnetopause: Testing the maximum magnetic shear model with THEMIS observations, J. Geophys. Res., 117, A01201, doi: 10.1029/2011JA016959.Google Scholar

Turc, L., Escoubet, C. P., Fontaine, D., Kilpua, E. K. J. and Enestam, S. (2016), Cone angle control of the interaction of magnetic clouds with the Earth’s bow shock, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 4781–9, doi: 10.1002/2016GL068818.Google Scholar

Turc, L., Fontaine, D., Savoini, P. and Kilpua, E. K. J. (2014), Magnetic clouds’ structure in the magnetosheath as observed by Cluster and Geotail: four case studies, Ann. Geophys., 32, 1247–61, doi: 10.5194/angeo-32-1247-2014.Google Scholar

Turc, L., Fontaine, D., Savoini, P. and Modolo, R. (2015), 3D hybrid simulations of the interaction of a magnetic cloud with a bow shock, J. Geophys. Res., 120, 6133–51, doi: 10.1002/2015JA021318.Google Scholar

Vasko, I. Y., Artemyev, A. V., Petrukovich, A. A., Nakamura, R. and Zelenyi, L. M. (2014), The structure of strongly tilted current sheets in the Earth magnetotail, Ann. Geophys., 32, 133, doi: 10.5194/angeo-32-133-2014.Google Scholar

Vasko, I. Y., Petrukovich, A. A., Artemyev, A. V., Nakamura, R. and Zelenyi, L. M. (2015), Earth’s distant magnetotail current sheet near and beyond lunar orbit, J. Geophys. Res., 120, 8663–80, doi: 10.1002/2015JA021633.Google Scholar

Walsh, B. M., Phan, T. D., Sibeck, D. G. and Souza, V. M. (2014), The plasmaspheric plume and magnetopause reconnection, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 223–8, doi: 10.1002/2013GL058802.Google Scholar

Walsh, B. M., Sibeck, D. G., Nishimura, Y. and Angelopoulos, V. (2013), Statistical analysis of the plasmaspheric plume at the magnetopause, J. Geophys. Res., 118, 4844–51, doi: 10.1002/jgra.50458.Google Scholar

Walsh, B. M., Sibeck, D. G., Wang, Y. and Fairfield, D. H. (2012), Dawn–dusk asymmetries in the Earth’s magnetosheath, J. Geophys. Res., 117, A12211, doi: 10.1029/2012JA018240.Google Scholar

Walsh, B. M., Thomas, E. G., Hwang, K.-J., Baker, J. B. H., Ruohoniemi, J. M. and Bonnell, J. W. (2015), Dense plasma and Kelvin–Helmholtz waves at Earth’s dayside magnetopause, J. Geophys. Res., 120, 5560–73, doi: 10.1002/2015JA021014.Google Scholar

Wang, S., Kistler, L. M., Mouikis, C. G., Liu, Y. and Genestreti, K. J. (2014), Hot magnetospheric O+ and cold ion behavior in magnetopause reconnection: Cluster observations, J. Geophys. Res., 119, 9601–23, doi: 10.1002/2014JA020402.Google Scholar

Wang, S., Kistler, L. M., Mouikis, C. G. and Petrinec, S. M. (2015), Dependence of the dayside magnetopause reconnection rate on local conditions, J. Geophys. Res., 120, 6386–6408, doi: 10.1002/2015JA021524.Google Scholar

Winchester, W., Kilpua, E. K. J., Liu, Y. D., Lugaz, N., Riley, P., Török, T. and Vršnak, B. (2017), The physical processes of CME/ICME evolution, Space Sci. Rev., 212, 1159, doi: 10.1007/s11214-017-0394-0.Google Scholar

Winslow, R. M., Lugaz, N., Philpott, L. C., Schwadron, N. A., Farrugia, C. J., Anderson, B. J. and Smith, C. W. (2015), Interplanetary coronal mass ejections from MESSENGER orbital observations at Mercury, J. Geophys. Res., 120, 6101–18, doi: 10.1002/2015JA021200.Google Scholar

Wu, C.-C., and Lepping, R. P. (2007), Comparison of the characteristics of magnetic clouds and magnetic cloud-like structures for the events of 1995–2003, Sol. Phys., 242, 159, doi: 10.1007/s11207-007-0323-6.Google Scholar

Wu, C.-C., and Lepping, R. P. (2011), Statistical comparison of magnetic clouds with interplanetary coronal mass ejections for solar cycle 23, Sol. Phys., 269, 141, doi: 10.1007/s11207-010-9684-3.Google Scholar

Yan, G. Q., Mozer, F. S., Shen, C., Chen, T., Parks, G. K., Cai, C. L. and McFadden, J. P. (2014), Kelvin–Helmholtz vortices observed by THEMIS at the duskside of the magnetopause under southward interplanetary magnetic field, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 4427–34, doi: 10.1002/2014GL060589.Google Scholar

Yurchyshyn, V. (2008), Relationship between EIT posteruption arcades, coronal mass ejections, the coronal neutral line, and magnetic clouds, Astrophys. J. Lett., 675(1), doi: 10.1086/533413.Google Scholar

Zhang, T. L., Baumjohann, W., Nakamura, R., Balogh, A. and Glassmeier, K. (2002), A wavy twisted neutral sheet observed by CLUSTER, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1899, doi: 10.1029/2002GL015544.Google Scholar

Zhu, C. B., Zhang, H., Ge, Y. S., Pu, Z. Y., Liu, W. L., Wan, W. X., Liu, L. B., Chen, Y. D., Le, H. J. and Wang, Y. F. (2015), Dipole tilt angle effect on magnetic reconnection locations on the magnetopause, J. Geophys. Res., 120, 5344–54, doi: 10.1002/2015JA020989.Google Scholar

Book contents

Part II - Geomagnetic Field

Summary

Keywords

Access options

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive