While nature conservation values in the countryside are often a product of human land uses and agricultural systems, as we have seen, changes to those systems often threaten valued habitats and species. Land-use intensification and the modernisation of agriculture can have damaging consequences for wildlife. While some types of biodiversity are of direct benefit to the landholder, such as game for shooting, most types have public good characteristics and offer no direct return to the owner or occupier. A key issue then is the extent to which the actions of landholders should be influenced by the state in order to protect public biodiversity values. This chapter looks at progress in the conservation of biodiversity, initially through the creation of protected nature reserves, through the protection of biodiversity on privately owned land and more recently through Large-scale Conservation initiatives. The development of policy has challenged the character of private property and we can see how an initial voluntary approach subsequently led to a realignment of private property rights. This has reflected a shift in public expectations of what it is reasonable to expect from private landowners. However, the limitations on what has been achieved have led to a further change, towards a re-territorialisation of conservation through large-scale initiatives that require cooperative actions amongst multiple landholders. This demands new forms of partnership and approaches to policy. The effectiveness of this approach on the ground has yet to be demonstrated.

Nature conservation in the UK is implemented in the context of commitments at a global level and of legislation originating in the European Union. The UK is a party to the international Convention on Biodiversity, under which it has signed up to a number of targets established in 2010, …