Afrobarometer. 2005. Round 3 Afrobarometer Survey in Tanzania. East Lansing, MI.Google Scholar

Beck, Thorsten, Clarke, George, Groff, Alberto, Keefer, Philip, and Walsh, Patrick. 2012. “New Tools in Comparative Political Economy: Database of Political Institutions.” World Bank Economic Review 15 (1):165–176.Google Scholar

Coppedge, Michael, Gerring, John, Altman, David, et al. 2017. “Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: A New Approach.” Perspectives on Politics 9 (2):247–267.Google Scholar

Europa Publications Limited. Various years. Africa South of the Sahara. London: Europa Publications Ltd.Google Scholar

Freedom House. Various years. Freedom in the World, New York, NY: Freedom House.Google Scholar

Geddes, Barbara, Wright, Joseph, and Franz, Erica. 2012. Authoritarian Regimes: A New Data Set. Perspectives on Politics 12 (2):313–331.Google Scholar

Gibney, Mark, Cornett, Linda, Wood, Reed, Haschke, Peter, and Arnon, Daniel. 2016. The Political Terror Scale 1976–2015. Date retrieved, from the Political Terror Scale website: www.politicalterrorscale.org.Google Scholar

Lewis, M. Paul, Simons, Gary F., and Fennig, Charles D., eds. 2015. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Eighteenth Edition. Vol. 2015. Dallas, TX: SIL International.Google Scholar

Polity IV. Various years. Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800–2013. Center for Systemic Peace: Vienna, VA.Google Scholar

Tierney, Michael J., Nielson, Daniel L., Hawkings, Darren G., et al. 2011. “More Dollars than Sense: Refining Our Knowledge of Development Financing Using AidData.” World Development 39 (11):1891–1906.Google Scholar

World Bank. 2009. Financial & Private Sector Development: Privatization. Washington, DC: The World Bank.Google Scholar

World Bank. 2016. World Bank Development Indicators. Washington, DC: The World Bank.Google Scholar

Bakary, Tessy, and Palmer, Susan L.. 1997. May 17, 1997 Legislative Elections in Cameroon: The Report of the IFES International Observer Mission. Washington, DC: International Foundation for Election Systems.Google Scholar

Carter Center. 2003. Observing the 2002 Kenya Elections. Atlanta, GA: The Carter Center.Google Scholar

Commonwealth Secretariat. 2003. Kenya General Election 27 December 2002: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group. London: Commonwealth Observer Group.Google Scholar

Commonwealth Secretariat. 2010. Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group: Tanzania General Elections 31 October 2010. London: Commonwealth Secretariat.Google Scholar

Commonwealth Secretariat. 2011. Report of the Commonwealth Expert Team: Cameroon Presidential Election 9 October 2011. London: Commonwealth Secretariat.Google Scholar

East African Community (EAC). 2010. Observer Mission to the 2010 General Elections in the United Republic of Tanzania. London: East African Community.Google Scholar

Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa (EISA). 2005. EISA Election Observer Mission Report: Zanzibar. Johannesberg: Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa.Google Scholar

European Union (EU). 2003. Kenya General Elections 27 December 2002. Brussels: European Union Election Observation Mission.Google Scholar

European Union (EU). 2010. Tanzania: Final Report General Elections October 2010. Brussels: European Union.Google Scholar

Institute for Education in Democracy (IED). 2003. Enhancing the Electoral Process in Kenya: A Report on the Transition General Election, 2002. Nairobi: Institute for Education in Democracy.Google Scholar

International Republican Institute (IRI). 1993. Kenya: The December 29, 1992 Elections. Washington, DC: International Republican Institute.Google Scholar

National Democratic Institute (NDI). 1993. An Assessment of the October 11, 1992 Elections in Cameroon. Washington, DC: National Democratic Institute for International Affairs.Google Scholar

National Democratic Institute (NDI). 2005. Preliminary Statement of NDI's Electoral Observation Mission to Zanzibar's 2005 Elections. Washington, DC: National Democratic Institute.Google Scholar

Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. 1997. Rapport de la Mission Exploratoire en vue des Elections Legislative 17 Mai 1997. Paris: Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie.Google Scholar

Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. 2002. Rapport des Missions de la Francophonie sue les Élections Législatives et Municipales de Juin 2002 au Cameroun. Paris: Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie.Google Scholar

Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. 2004. Rapport de la Mission D'Observation de L’Élection Présidentielle du 11 Octobre 2004 au Cameroun. Paris: Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie.Google Scholar

Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. 2011. Rapport de la Mission D'Observation de L’Élection Présidentielle du 8 Octobre 2011 au Cameroun. Paris: Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie.Google Scholar

South African Development Community (SADC). 2010. SADC Electoral Observer Mission (SEOM) to the United Republic of Tanzania. Johannesburg: South African Development Community.Google Scholar

Tanzanian Election Monitoring Committee (TEMCO). 1997. The 1995 General Elections in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Tanzanian Election Monitoring Committee.Google Scholar

Tanzanian Election Monitoring Committee (TEMCO). 2001. The 2000 General Elections in Tanzania: Report of the Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee. Dar es Salaam: Tanzanian Election Monitoring Committee.Google Scholar

Tanzanian Election Monitoring Committee (TEMCO). 2006. The 2005 Election in Tanzania Mainland: Report of the Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee. Dar es Salaam: Tanzanian Election Monitoring Committee.Google Scholar

Transparency International (TI). 2011. 09 October 2011 Presidential Election: Final Report of the Election Observation Mission. Yaoundé: Transparancy International Cameroon.Google Scholar

Bureau Central des Recensements et des Etudes de Population. 2005. Rapport De Presentation des Resultantes Definitis. Yaoundé, Cameroun: Bureau Central des Recensements et des Etudes de Population.Google Scholar

Elections Cameroon. 2011. Rapport sur l'Elections Presidentielle du 9 Octobre 2011. Yaoundé: Elections Cameroon.Google Scholar

Institute of Economic Affairs. 2002. The Little Fact Book: The Socio Economic & Political Profiles of Kenya's Districts. Nairobi: The Institute of Economic Affairs.Google Scholar

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). 1994. Adjustment in Africa: Reforms, Results, and the Road Ahead. New York, NY: World Bank.Google Scholar

International Monetary Fund (IMF). 1991. Annual Report. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar

International Monetary Fund (IMF). 1996. Kenya: Economic Reforms for 1996–1998 The Policy Framework Paper. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar

International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2005. Cameroon: Ex Post Assessment of Longer-Term Program Engagement. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar

Ministre de l'Administration Territoriale. 1992. Rapport sur l'Elections Presidentielle du 11 Octobre 1992. Yaoundé: Ministre de l'Administration Territoriale.Google Scholar

Ministre de l’Administration Territoriale. 1997. Rapport sur les Elections Legislatives des 17,18 Mai 1997. Yaoundé: Ministre de l'Administration Territoriale.Google Scholar

Ministre de L'economie de la Planification et de L'amenagement du Territoire. 2000. Etudes Socio-Economiques Regionalies Au Cameroun (Various Provinces). Yaoundé: Ministre de L'economie de la Planification et de L'amenagement du Territoire.Google Scholar

Office of the National Treasurer. Kenyan African National Union Governing Council Meeting Notes. KANU 1/3(252). Nairobi, Kenya (March 25, 1980).Google Scholar

Office the President. Delegates to the KANU Provincial Conferences on 18th November 1978. Nairobi, Kenya (November 10, 1978).Google Scholar

Republic of Kenya. 1994. Kenya Population Census, 1989. Nairobi: Central Bureau of Statistics, Office of the Vice President and Ministry of Planning and National Development..Google Scholar

Republic of Kenya. 2001. The 1999 Population & Housing Census: Counting Our People for Development. Nairobi: Central Bureau of Statistics Ministry of Finance and Planning.Google Scholar

Tanganyika Department of Lands & Surveys. 1956. Atlas of Tanganyika, East Africa. Dar es Salaam: Government Printer.Google Scholar

United Republic of Tanzania. 1970. The Economic Survey Annual Plan for 1970–1971. Dar es Salaam: Government Printer.Google Scholar

United Republic of Tanzania. 1972. The Economic Survey Annual Plan for 1972–1973. Dar es Salaam: Government Printer.Google Scholar

United Republic of Tanzania. 1997. The Report of the National Electoral Commission on the 1995 Presidential and Parliamentary Elections. Dar es Salaam: Tanzanian National Electoral Comission. Dar es Salaam.Google Scholar

United Republic of Tanzania. 1998. Regional Socio-Economic Profile (Various Regions), edited by Tanzanian Planning Commission and Regional Comissioner's Office. Dar es Salaam: Government Printer.Google Scholar

United Republic of Tanzania. 2001. The Report of the National Electoral Commission on the 2000 Presidential and Parliamentary and Councilor's Elections. Tanzanian National Electoral Commission. Dar es Salaam: Government Printer.Google Scholar

United Republic of Tanzania. 2002. District Profiles (Various), edited by Tanzanian National Bureau of Statistics. Dar es Salaam: Government Printer.Google Scholar

United Republic of Tanzania. 2006. The Report of the National Electoral Commission on the 2005 Presidential and Parliamentary and Councilor's Elections. Tanzanian National Electoral Commission. Dar es Salaam: Government Printer.Google Scholar

United Republic of Tanzania. 2011. The Report of the National Electoral Commission on the 2010 Presidential and Parliamentary and Councilor's Elections. Tanzainan National Electoral Commission. Dar es Salaam: Government PrinterGoogle Scholar

United Republic of Tanzania. 2016. The Report of the National Electoral Commission on the 2015 Presidential and Parliamentary and Councilor's Elections. Tanzainan National Electoral Commission. Dar es Salaam: Government Printer.Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “Possible Successor to President Biya.” Wikileaks Cable 07YAOUNDE227_a (February 22, 2007).Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “USG Should Avoid Association with Finance Minister Polycarpe Abah.” Wikileaks Cable 07YAOUNDE732_a (June 7, 2007).Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “While Not Pretty, Cameroon's Election Prep is Moving Ahead.” Wikileaks Cable 07YAOUNDE741 (June 8, 2007).Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “Cameroon Elections: Campaign Kicks into High Gear” Wikileaks Cable: 07YAOUNDE894_a (July 18, 2007).Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “Election on July 22: Nuts and Bolts and USG Observation.” Wikileaks Cable 07YAOUNDE902 (July 19, 2007).Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “Sarkozy-Biya Summit: A French View from Cameroon.” Wikileaks Cable 07YAOUNDE1271_a (October 24, 2007).Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “Biya Tells Ambassador he Plans Constitutional Change.” Wikileaks Cable 08YAOUNDE103_a (January 31, 2008).Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “Ambassador Engages on Constitutional Change.” Wikileaks Cable 08YAOUNDE732_a (February 20, 2008).Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “Constitution Issue Heats Up.” Wikileaks Cable 07YAOUNDE33_a (July 11, 2008).Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “Biya Promises Progress on Corruption and Governance.” Wikileaks Cable 08YAOUNDE800_a (August 11, 2008).Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “President Biya at 26.” Wikileaks Cable 08YAOUNDE1169_a (December 3, 2008).Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “Is Biya Preparing to Change the Constitution for a Third Term?” Wikileaks Cable 07YAOUNDE1478 (December 19, 2008).Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “Cameroon's Justice Minister Says North Will Support Biya, but not another Beti or Bami.” Wikileaks Cable 09YAOUNDE256_a (March 12, 2009).Google Scholar

U.S. Embassy, Yaoundé. “Rethinking our Approach to Cameroon.” Wikileaks Cable 09YAOUNDE971_a (November 13, 2009).Google Scholar

White House. “News Release: Leadership and Opportunity in Africa.” Washington, DC (March 20, 2003).Google Scholar

Anembom, Beatrice (Organizational Secretary, SDF). Yaoundé. (July 29, 2015).Google Scholar

Anonymous #CM4 (CPDM Secretariat Member). Yaoundé. (July 27, 2015).Google Scholar

Anonymous #CM11 (CPDM Central Committee Member). Douala. (August 3, 2015).Google Scholar

Anonymous #CM15 (Senior SDF Opposition Member. Yaoundé. (July 29, 2015).Google Scholar

Anonymous #TZ3 (Senior CCM Member). Dar es Salaam. (October 18, 2010).Google Scholar

Anonymous #TZ13 (Senior CCM Member). Arusha. (October 31, 2010).Google Scholar

Anyang N'yong'o, Peter (Foundational FORD Member). Nairobi. (August 1, 2012).Google Scholar

Asanganyi, Tazoacha (former Secretary General, SDF). Yaoundé. (July 22, 2015).Google Scholar

Bashenge, Joran (Deputy-Secretary General, CUF). Dar es Salaam. (November 15, 2010).Google Scholar

Braegu, Mwesigu (Campaign Chair, CHADEMA). Dar es Salaam. (November 12, 2010).Google Scholar

Dzongang, Albert (Former MP CPDM). Douala. (August 5, 2015).Google Scholar

Ekindi, Jean-Jacques (Former CPDM Section President). Douala. (August 4, 2015).Google Scholar

Kabwe, Zitto (CHADEMA MP, Kigoma Rural). Dar es Salaam. (November 29, 2010).Google Scholar

Kamba, Gaston (CPDM MP Nkam). Yaoundé. (July 23, 2015).Google Scholar

Kiai, Maina (Civil Society Activist). Nairobi. (July 13, 2012).Google Scholar

Kituyi, Mukhisa (former senior member of FORD-K). Nairobi. (July 18, 2012).Google Scholar

Lipumba, Ibrahim (Chairman, CUF). Dar es Salaam. (December 3, 2010).Google Scholar

Mbowe, Freemon (Chairman, CHADEMA). Dar es Salaam. (December 4, 2010).Google Scholar

Mkumbo, Kitila (Senior Technical Advisor, CHADEMA). Dar es Salaam. (October 27, 2010).Google Scholar

Mnyika, John (CHADEMA Interim Secretary General). Dar es Salaam. (October 25, 2010).Google Scholar

Mswiga, Peter Simeon (MP Iringa Urban, District Secretary General for Iringa, CHADEMA). Iringa. (November 26, 2010).Google Scholar

Mudavadi, Musalia (Former Finance Minister of Kenya). Nairobi. (July 25, 2012).Google Scholar

Muite, Paul (former Vice-Chair of FORD-K). Nairobi. (July 20, 2012).Google Scholar

Mwigamba, Marigu Samson (Regional Chairman for Arusha, CHADEMA). Arusha. (November 13, 2010).Google Scholar

Nkolo, John (Secretary General, UDP). Dar es Salaam. (November 11, 2010).Google Scholar

Nguini, Matthias Owona (Civil Society Activist). Yaoundé. (July 28, 2015).Google Scholar

Ojiambo, Julia, (Former Senior Member of KANU). Nairobi. (July 27, 2012).Google Scholar

Opore, John (former KANU MP for Bonchari). Nairobi. (July 20, 2012).Google Scholar

Osih, Joshua (MP for Wouri, SDF). Douala. (August 3, 2015).Google Scholar

Robert, Bappoh Lipor (Chairman, UPC). Yaoundé. (August 6, 2015).Google Scholar

Ruhuza, Samweli (Secretary General NCCR-M). Dar es Salaam. (November 22, 2010).Google Scholar

Salat, Nick (KANU Secretary General). Nairobi. (August 7, 2012).Google Scholar

Slaa, Wilibrod (Secretary General, CHADEMA). Dar es Salaam. (November 18, 2010).Google Scholar

Waka, Job (Organizational Secretary of KANU). Nairobi. (July 18, 2012).Google Scholar

Wetangula, Moses (former KANU MP for Sirisia). Nairobi. (July 17, 2012).Google Scholar

Adar, Korwa G. 1998. “The Clinton Administration and Africa: A View from Nairobi, Kenya.” Issue: A Journal of Opinion 26 (2):70–74.Google Scholar

Aicardi de Saint-Paul, Marc. 1989. Gabon: The Development of a Nation. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar

Ajulu, Rok. 2001. “Kenya: One Step Forward, Three Steps Back: The Succession Dilemma.” Review of African Political Economy 28 (88):197–212.Google Scholar

Ajulu, Rok. 2002. “Politicised Ethnicity, Competitive Politics and Conlict in Kenya: A Historical Perspective.” African Studies 61 (2):251–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Albaugh, Erika. 2011. “An Autocrat's Toolkit: Adaptation and Manipulation in ‘Democratic’ Cameroon.” Democratization 18 (2):388–414.Google Scholar

Alvarez, Mkie, Cheibub, Jose Antonio, Limongi, Fernando, and Przeworski, Adam. 1996. “Classifying Political Regimes.” Studies in Comparative International Development 31 (2):3–36.Google Scholar

Alwan, Daoud A., and Mibrathu, Yohanis. 2000. Historical Dictionary of Djibouti. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.Google Scholar

Anderson, David, Moller, Jorgen, and Rorbaek, Lasse Lykke. 2014. “State Capacity and Political Regime Stability.” Democratization 21 (7):1305–1325.Google Scholar

Armony, Ariel C., and Schamis, Hector E.. 2005. “Babel in Democratization Studies.” Journal of Democracy 16 (4):113–128.Google Scholar

Arriola, Leonardo R. 2009. “Patroange and Political Stability in Africa.” Comparative Political Studies 42 (10):1339–1362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Arriola, Leonardo R. 2012. Multi-Ethnic Coalitions in Africa: Business Financing of Opposition Election Campaigns. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Article19. 1997. Cameroon: A Transition in Crisis.Google Scholar

Austen, Ralph A. 1968. Northwest Tanzania under German and British Rule: Colonial Policy and Tribal Politics, 1889–1939. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Azarya, Victor. 1976. Dominance and Change in North Cameroon: The Fulbe Aristocracy. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar

Bader, Julia, Grävingholt, Jörn, and Kästner, Antje. 2010. “Would Autocracies Promote Autocracy? A Political Economy Perspective on Regime-Type Export in Regional Neighborhoods.” Contemporary Politics 16 (1):81–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Baker, Bruce. 2008. “Seychelles: Democratising in the Shadows of the Past.” Journal of Contemporary African Studies 26 (3):279–293.Google Scholar

Baldwin, Kate. 2015. The Paradox of Traditional Chiefs in Democratic Africa. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Baregu, Mwesiga. 1994. “The Rise and Fall of the One Party State in Tanzania.” In Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Widner, Jennifer A., 158–181. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Barkan, Joel D. 1984a. “Legislators, Elections, and Political Linkage.” In Politics and Public Policy in Kenya and Tanzania, edited by Barkan, Joel D., 71–101. New York, NY: Praeger.Google Scholar

Barkan, Joel D., ed. 1984b. Politics and Public Policy in Kenya and Tanzania. New York, NY: Praeger.Google Scholar

Barkan, Joel D. 1994. “Divergence and Convergence in Kenya and Tanzania.” In Beyond Capitalism vs. Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania, edited by Barkan, Joel D., 1–46. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Barkan, Joel D. 2004. “U.S. Human Rights Policy and Democratization in Kenya.” In Implementing U.S. Human Rights Policy, edited by Liang-Fenton, Debra, 51–84. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace.Google Scholar

Barkan, Joel D. 2009a. “African Legislatures and the ‘Third Wave’ of Democratization.” In Legislative Power in Emerging African Democracies, edited by Barkan, Joel D., 1–32. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Barkan, Joel D. 2009b. Legislative Power in Emerging African Democracies. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Barkan, Joel D., and Holmquist, Frank. 1989. “Peasent-State Relations and the Social Base of Self-Help in Kenya.” World Politics 41 (3):359–380.Google Scholar

Barkan, Joel D., and Chege, Michael. 1989. “Decentralizing the State: District Focus and the Politics of Reallocation in Kenya.” Journal of Modern African Studies 27 (3):431–453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Barnes, James F. 1992. Gabon: Beyond the Colonial Legacy. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Bates, Robert H. 1981. Markets and States in Tropical Africa: The Political Basis of Agricultural Policies. Berkeley, CA: The University of California Press.Google Scholar

Bayart, Jean-François. 1978a. “The Birth of the Ahidjo Regime.” In Gaullist Africa: Cameroon Under Ahmadu Ahidjo, edited by Joseph, Richard, 45–65. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers.Google Scholar

Bayart, Jean-François. 1978b. “Clientelism, Elections, and Systems of Inequality and Domination in Cameroun: A Reconsideration of Political and Social Control.” In Elections without Choice, edited by Hermet, Guy, Rose, Richard and Rouquie, Alain, 67–87. New York, NY: John Wiley.Google Scholar

Bayart, Jean-François. 2009. The State in Africa: the Politics of the Belly. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity.Google Scholar

Bellin, Eva. 2000. “Contingent Democrats: Industrialists, Labor, and Democratization in Late-Developing Countries.” World Politics 52 (2):175–205.Google Scholar

Bellin, Eva. 2012. “Reconsidering the Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Lessons from the Arab Spring.” Comparative Politics 44 (2):127–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bennett, Andrew. 2008. “Process Tracing: A Bayesian Perspective.” In The Oxford Handbook of Political Methodology, edited by Box-Steffensmeier, Janet M., Brady, Henry E. and Collier, David, 702–721. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Bennett, Andrew, and Checkel, Jeffrey T., eds. 2015. Process Tracing: From Metaphor to Analytic Tool. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Bennett, George. 1966. “Kenya's ‘Little General Election’.” The World Today 22 (8):336–343.Google Scholar

Berman, Bruce. 1990. Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination. London: James Currey.Google Scholar

Berry, Jeffrey M. 2002. “Validity and Reliability Issues in Elite Interviewing.” PS: Political Science and Politics 35 (4):679–682.Google Scholar

Bienen, Henry. 1970. Tanzania: Party Transformation and Economic Development. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Bienen, Henry. 1974. Kenya: The Politics of Participation and Control. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Bienen, Henry. 1978. Armies and Parties in Africa. New York, NY: Africana Pub. Co.Google Scholar

Blaydes, Lisa. 2011. Elections and Distributive Politics. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Bogaards, Matthijs. 2004. “Counting Parties and Identifying Dominant Party Systems in Africa.” European Journal of Political Research 43:173–197.Google Scholar

Bogaards, Matthijs. 2009. “How to Classify Hybrid Regimes: Defective Democracy and Electoral Authoritarianism.” Democratization 16 (2):399–423.Google Scholar

Bogaards, Matthijs. 2013. “Reexamining African Elections.” Journal of Democracy 24 (4):151–160.Google Scholar

Bollee, Amedee. 2003. “Djibouti: From French Outpost to US Base.” Review of African Political Economy 30 (97):481–84.Google Scholar

Boone, Catherine. 1990. “State Power and Economic Crisis in Senegal.” Comparative Politics 22 (3):341–357.Google Scholar

Boone, Catherine. 1994. “States and Ruling Classes in Postcolonial Africa: The Enduring Contradictions of Power.” In State Power and Social Forces: Domination and Transformation in the Third World, edited by Migdal, Joel S., Kohli, Atul and Shue, Vivienne, 108–140. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Brady, Henry E., and Collier, David. 2010. Rethinking Social Inquiry: Diverse Tools, Shared Standards. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar

Branch, Daniel. 2011. Between Hope and Despair: 1963–2011. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Branch, Daniel, and Cheeseman, Nicholas. 2006. “The Politics of Control in Kenya: Understanding the Bureaucratic-Executive State, 1952–78.” Review of African Political Economy 33 (107):11–31.Google Scholar

Brass, Jennifer N. 2008. “Djibouti's Unusual Resource Curse.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 46 (4):523–545.Google Scholar

Bratton, Michael. 1998. “Second Elections in Africa.” Journal of Democracy 9 (3):51–66.Google Scholar

Bratton, Michael. 2007. “Formal versus Informal Institutions in Africa.” Journal of Democracy 18 (3):96–110.Google Scholar

Bratton, Michael, and Chang, Eric C. C.. 2006. “State Building and Democraitzation in Sub-Saharan Africa: Forwards, Backwards, or Together?” Comparative Political Studies 39 (9):1059–1083.Google Scholar

Bratton, Michael, and Kimenyi, Mwangi S.. 2008. “Voting in Kenya: Putting Ethnicity in Perspective.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 2 (2):272–289.Google Scholar

Bratton, Michael, and van de Walle, Nicolas. 1997. Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Brautigam, Deborah. 2009. The Dragon's Gift: The Real Story of China in Africa. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Brennan, James R. 2014. “Julius Rex: Nyerere through the Eyes of His Critics, 1953–2013.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 8 (3):459–477.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brown, Stephen. 2001. “Authoritarian Leaders and Multiparty Elections in Africa: How Foreign Donors Help to Keep Kenya's Daniel arap Moi in Power.” Third World Quarterly 22 (5):725–739.Google Scholar

Brown, Stephen. 2004. “Theorising Kenya's Protracted Transition to Democracy.” Journal of Contemporary African Studies 22 (3):325–342.Google Scholar

Brown, Stephen. 2005. “Foreign Aid and Democracy Promotion: Lessons from Africa.” The European Journal of Development Research 17 (2):179–198.Google Scholar

Brownlee, Jason. 2007. Authoritarianism in an Age of Democratization. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Brownlee, Jason. 2009. “Harbinger of Democracy: Competitive Elections before the End of Authoritarianism.” In Democratization by Elections: A New Mode of Transition?, edited by Lindberg, Staffan I, 128–147. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Brownlee, Jason. 2012. Democracy Prevention: The Politics of the U.S. Egyptian Alliance. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Brumberg, Daniel. 2002. “The Trap of Liberalized Autocracy.” Journal of Democracy 13 (4):56–68.Google Scholar

Bunce, Valerie, and Wolchik, Sharon L.. 2011. Defeating Authoritarian Leaders in Postcommunist Countries. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Burnell, Peter, and Schlumberger, Oliver. 2010. “Promoting Democracy – Promoting Autocracy? International Politics and National Political Regimes.” Contemporary Politics 16 (1):1–15.Google Scholar

Calingaert, Daniel. 2006. “Election Rigging and How to Fight it.” Journal of Democracy 17 (3):138–151.Google Scholar

Callaghy, Thomas M. 1987. “The State as Lame Leviathan: The Patrimonial Administrative State in Africa.” In The African State in Transition, edited by Ergas, Zaki, 87–116. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Campbell, Horace, and Stein, Howard. 1992. Tanzania and the IMF: The Dynamics of Liberalization. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Carbone, Giovanni M. 2005. “Continuidade na renovacao? Ten Years of Multiparty Politics in Mozambique: Roots, Evolution and Stabilisation of the Frelimo-Renamo Party System.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 43 (3):417–442.Google Scholar

Carothers, Thomas. 2000. Aiding Democracy Abroad: The Learning Curve. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peaces.Google Scholar

Carothers, Thomas. 2002. “The End of the Transition Paradigm.” Journal of Democracy 13 (1):5–21.Google Scholar

Carothers, Thomas. 2006. Confronting the Weakest Link: Aiding Political Parties in New Democracies. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Google Scholar

Case, William. 2006. “Manipulative Skills: How Do Rulers Control the Electoral Arena.” In Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition, edited by Schedler, Andreas, 95–112. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar

Chabal, Patrick, and Daloz, Jean-Paul. 1999. Africa Works: Disorder as Political Instrument. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Cheeseman, Nic. 2008. “The Kenyan Elections of 2007: An Introduction.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 2 (2):168–184.Google Scholar

Cheeseman, Nic. 2010. “African Elections as Vehicles for Change.” Journal of Democracy 21 (4):139–153.Google Scholar

Cheeseman, Nic. 2015. Democracy in Africa: Successes, Failures, and the Struggle for Political Reform. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Cheeseman, Nic, Lynch, Gabrielle, and Willis, Justin. 2014. “Democracy and its Discontents: Understanding Kenya's 2013 Elections.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 8 (1):2–24.Google Scholar

Chege, Michael. 1994. “The Return of Multiparty Politics.” In Beyond Capitalism vs. Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania, edited by Barkan, Joel D., 47–74. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chehabi, H. E., and Linz, Juan J., eds. 1998. Sultanistic Regimes. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Clark, John F. 2006. “Armed Arbiters: When Does the Military Step into the Electoral Arena.” In Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition, edited by Schedler, Andreas, 177–202. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Coleman, James S., and Rosberg, Carl G.. 1970. Political Parties and National Integration in Tropical Africa. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Collier, David. 2011. “Understanding Process Tracing.” PS: Political Science and Politics 44 (4):823–830.Google Scholar

Collier, David, and Adcock, Robert. 1999. “Democracy an Dichotomies: A Pragmatic Approach to Choices about Concepts.” Annual Review of Political Science 2:537–365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Collier, David, and Levitsky, Steven. 1997. “Democracy with Adjectives: Conceptual Innovation in Comparative Research.” World Politics 49 (3):430–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Collier, Ruth B. 1982. Regimes in Tropical Africa: Changing Forms of Supremacy, 1945–1975. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Collier, Ruth B., and Collier, David. 2002. Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement, and Regime Dynamics in Latin America. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar

Conroy-Krutz, Jeffrey. 2013. “Information and Ethnic Politics in Africa.” British Journal of Political Science 43 (2):345–373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cooksey, Brian, Court, David, and Makau, Ben. 1994. “Education for Self-Reliance and Harambee.” In Beyond Capitalism vs. Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania, edited by Barkan, Joel D., 201–234. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Cornell, Agnes. 2013. “Does Regime Type Matter for the Impact of Democracy Aid on Democracy?” Democratization 20 (4):642–667.Google Scholar

Costello, Matthew J. 1996. “Administration Triumphs over Politics: The Transformation of the Tanzanian State.” African Studies Review 39 (1):123–148.Google Scholar

Coulson, Andrew. 1982. Tanzania: A Political Economy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Cox, Gary W. 2009. “Authoritarian Elections and Leadership Succession.” American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Toronto.Google Scholar

Cox, Michael G., Ikenberry, John, and Inoguchi, Takashi, eds. 2000. American Democracy Promotion: Impulses, Strategies, and Impacts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Crawford, Gordon. 1997. “Foreign Aid and Political Conditionality: Issues in Effectiveness and Consistency.” Democratization 4 (3):69–108.Google Scholar

Croke, Kevin. 2016. “Tools of Single Party Hegemony in Tanzania: Evidence from Surveys and Survey Experiments.” Democratization:1–24.Google Scholar

Crook, Richard C. 1989. “Patrimonialism, Administrative Effects and Economic Development in Côte d'Ivoire.” African Affairs 88 (351):202–228.Google Scholar

Cumming, Gordon. 2001. Aid to Africa: French and British Policies from the Cold War to the New Millennium. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar

Dagher, Jihad, Mills, Marshall, Ocampos, Lorraine, and Rosa, Samuele. 2009. Togo: Selected Issues. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar

Dahl, Robert. 1971. Polyarchy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Darden, Keith. 2008. “The Integrity of Corrupt States: Graft as an Informal State Institution.” Politics & Society 36 (1):35–60.Google Scholar

De Mesquita, Bruce Bueno, Smith, Alastair, Siverson, Randolph M., and Morrow, James D.. 2005. The Logic of Political Survival. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Decalo, Samuel. 1987. Historical Dictionary of Togo. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press.Google Scholar

Decalo, Samuel. 1998. The Stable Minority: Civilian Rule in Africa, 1960–1990. Gainesville, FL: FAP Books.Google Scholar

DeLancey, Mark D. 1989. Cameroon: Dependence and Independence. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

DeLancey, Mark D., Mbuh, Rebecca Neh, and DeLancey, Mark W.. 2010. Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.Google Scholar

DeLancey, Virginia. 1986. “Agricultural Productivity in Cameroon.” In The Political Economy of Cameroon, edited by Schatzberg, Michael G. and Zartman, William I., 133–160. New York, NY: Praeger.Google Scholar

Diamond, Larry J. 2002. “Thinking about Hybrid Regimes.” Journal of Democracy 13 (2):21–35.Google Scholar

Diklitch, Susan. 2002. “Failed Democratic Transition in Cameroon: A Human Rights Explanation.” Human Rights Quarterly 24 (1):152–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Donno, Daniela. 2013a. Defending Democratic Norms: International Actors and the Politics of Misconduct. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Donno, Daniela. 2013b. “Elections and Democratization in Authoritarian Regimes.” American Journal of Political Science 57 (3):703–716.Google Scholar

Dunning, Thad. 2004. “Conditioning the Effects of Aid: Cold War Politics, Donor Credibility, and Democracy in Africa.” International Organization 58 (2):409–423.Google Scholar

Eifert, Benn, Miguel, Edward, and Posner, Daniel. 2010. “Political Competition and Ethnic Identification in Africa.” American Journal of Political Science 54 (2):494–510.Google Scholar

Eko, Lyombe. 2004. “Hear All Evil, Rail Against All Evil: Le Messager and the Journalism of Resistance in Cameroon.” In The Leadership Challenge in Africa: Cameroon under Paul Biya, edited by Mbaku, John Mukum and Takougang, Joseph, 123–152. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.Google Scholar

Elischer, Sebastian. 2013. Political Parties in Africa: Ethnicity and Party Formation. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Ellis, Stephen. 1993. “Rumour and Power in Togo.” Africa 63 (4):462–476.Google Scholar

Elman, Colin. 2005. “Explanatory Typologies in Qualitative Studies of International Politics.” International Organization 59 (2):293–326.Google Scholar

Emmanuel, Nikolas G. 2010. “Undermining Cooperation: Donor-Patrons and the Failure of Political Conditionality.” Democratization 17 (5):856–877.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Emmanuel, Nikolas G. 2013. “‘With a Friend like this …’: Shielding Cameroon from Democratization.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 48 (2):145–160.Google Scholar

Fatton, Robert. 1986. “Clientelism and Patronage in Senegal.” African Studies Review 29 (4):61–78.Google Scholar

Ferree, Karen E. 2010. “The Social Origins of Electoral Volatility in Africa.” British Journal of Political Science 40 (4):759–779.Google Scholar

Finkel, Steven E., Pérez-Liñán, Aníbal, and Seligson, Mitchell A.. 2007. “The Effects of U.S. Foreign Assistance on Democracy Building, 1990–2003.” World Politics 59 (3):404–439.Google Scholar

Fjeldstad, Odd-Helge, and Therkildsen, Ole. 2008. “Mass Taxation and State-Society Relations in East Africa.” In Taxation and State Building in Developing Countries, edited by Fjeldstad, Odd-Helge and Moore, Mick, 114–134. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Foeken, Dick, and Dietz, Tom. 2000. “Of Ethnicity, Manipulation, and Observation: the 1992 and 1997 Elections in Kenya.” In Election Observation and Democratization in Africa, edited by Abbink, Jon and Hessling, Gerti, 122–149. New York, NY: Palgrave & Macmillan.Google Scholar

Fonchingong, Tangie Nsoh. 1998. “Multipartyism and Democratization in Cameroon.” Journal of Third World Studies 15 (2):119–136.Google Scholar

Franda, Marcus F. 1982. The Seychelles: Unquiet Islands. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Frye, Timothy, Gehlbach, Scott, Marquardt, Kyle L., and Reuter, Ora John. 2017. “Is Putin's Popularity Real?” Post-Soviet Affairs 33 (1):1–15.Google Scholar

Galvan, Dennis. 2001. “Political Turnover and Social Change in Senegal.” Journal of Democracy 12 (13):51–62.Google Scholar

Gandhi, Jennifer. 2008. Political Institutions under Dictatorship. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Gandhi, Jennifer, and Przeworski, Adam. 2007. “Authoritarian Institutions and the Survival of Autocrats.” Comparative Political Studies 40 (11):1279–1301.Google Scholar

Gandhi, Jennifer, and Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2009. “Elections under Authoritarianism.” Annual Review of Political Science 12:403–422.Google Scholar

Gardinier, David E. 1997. “Gabon: Limited Reform and Regime Survival.” In Political Reform in Francophone Africa, edited by Clark, John F. and Gardinier, David E., 145–161. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Gasiorwoski, Mark J. 1995. “Economic Crisis and Political Regime Change: An Event History Analysis.” The American Political Science Review 89 (4):882–892.Google Scholar

Geddes, Barbara. 1999. “Authoritarian Breakdown: Empirical Test of a Game Theoretic Argument.” Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Atlanta, GA.Google Scholar

Geddes, Barbara. 2006. “Why Parties and Elections in Authoritarian Regimes.” American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA.Google Scholar

Gehlbach, Scott, and Keefer, Philip. 2011. “Investment without Democracy: Ruling-Party Institutionalization and Credible Commitment in Autocracies.” Journal of Comparative Economics 39 (2):123–139.Google Scholar

George, Alexander L., and Bennett, Andrew. 2005. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Gerring, John. 2012. Social Science Methodology: A Unified Framework. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Gerring, John, and Seawright, Jason. 2008. “Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options.” Political Research Quarterly 61 (2):294–308.Google Scholar

Gertzel, Cherry. 1970. The Politics of Independent Kenya 1963–68. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar

Giliomee, Hermann, and Simkins, Charles. 1999. The Awkward Embrace: One-Party Domination and Democracy in Industrialising Countries. Amsterdam: Overseas Publishing Company.Google Scholar

Glickman, Harvey, ed. 1992. Political Leaders of Contemporary Africa South of the Sahara: A Biographical Dictionary. Westport, CT: Greenword Publishing Group.Google Scholar

Goertz, Gary. 2006. Social Science Concepts: A User's Guide. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Goertz, Gary, and Mahoney, James. 2012. A Tale of Two Cultures: Qualitative and Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Graham, Shirley. 1975. Julius K. Nyerere: Teacher of Africa. New York, NY: Julian Messner.Google Scholar

Greene, Kenneth F. 2007. Why Dominant Parties Lose Mexico's Democratization in Comparative Perspective. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Greene, Kenneth F. 2010. “The Political Economy of Authoritarian Single-Party Dominance.” Comparative Political Studies 43 (7):807–834.Google Scholar

Gregory, Shaun. 2000. “The French Military in Africa: Past and Present.” African Affairs 99 (396):435–448.Google Scholar

Gros, Jean-Germain. 1995. “The Hard Lessons of Cameroon.” Journal of Democracy 6 (3):112–127.Google Scholar

Gryzmala-Busse, Anna. 2002. Redeeming the Communist Past: The Regeneration of Communist Parties in East Central Europe. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Gryzmala-Busse, Anna. 2008. “Beyond Clientelism: Incumbent State Captures and State Formation.” Comparative Political Studies 41 (4/5):638–673.Google Scholar

Gunther, Richard, and Diamond, Larry. 2003. “Species of Political Parties: A New Typology.” Party Politics 9 (2):167–199.Google Scholar

Hadenius, Axel, and Teorell, Jan. 2007. “Pathways from Authoritarianism.” Journal of Democracy 18 (1):143–157.Google Scholar

Hafner-Burton, Emilie M. 2008. “Sticks and Stones: Naming and Shaming the Human Rights Enforcement Problem.” International Organization 62 (4):689–716.Google Scholar

Hafner-Burton, Emilie M., Hyde, Susan D., and Jablonski, Ryan S.. 2014. “When Do Governments Resort to Election Violence?” British Journal of Political Science 44 (1):149–179.Google Scholar

Haggard, Stephan, and Kaufman, Robert R.. 1995. The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Hanson, Jonathan K., and Sigman, Rachel. 2013. “Leviathan's Latent Dimensions: Measuring State Capacity for Comparative Political Research.” American Political Science Association Annual Meeting. Chicago, IL.Google Scholar

Harbeson, John. 1973. Nation-Building in Kenya: The Role of Land Reform. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar

Harsch, Ernest. 1998. “Burkina Faso in the Winds of Liberalisation.” Review of African Political Economy 25 (78):625–641.Google Scholar

Hartlyn, Jonathan, and McCoy, Jennifer L.. 2006. “Observer Paradoxes: How to Assess Electoral Manipulation.” In Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition, edited by Schedler, Andreas, 58–78. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar

Hatch, John. 1976. Two African Statesmen: Kaunda of Zambia and Nyerere of Tanzania. London: Secker and Warburg.Google Scholar

Hazan, Reuven Y., and Rahat, Gideon. 2010. Democracy within Parties: Candidate Selection Methods and their Political Consequences. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Heilbrunn, John R. 1993. “Social Origins of National Conferences in Benin and Togo.” Journal of Modern African Studies 31 (2):277–299.Google Scholar

Heilbrunn, John R. 1997. “Togo: The National Conference and Stalled Reform.” In Political Reform in Francophone Africa, edited by Clark, John F. and Garvey, Janet, 225–245. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Heilman, Bruce E., and Kaiser, Paul J.. 2002. “Religion, Identity and Politics in Tanzania.” Third World Quarterly 23 (4):691–709.Google Scholar

Hempstone, Smith. 1997. Rogue Ambassador: An African Memoir. Sewanee, TN: University of the South Press.Google Scholar

Herbst, Jeffrey. 2000. States and State Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Hermet, Guy, Rouquie, Alain, and Rose, Richard, eds. 1978. Elections without Choice. New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar

Hicken, Allen, and Kuhonta, Erik Martinez. 2011. “Shadows from the Past: Party System Institutionalization in Asia.” Comparative Political Studies 44 (5):572–597.Google Scholar

Hodgkin, Thomas Lionel. 1961. African Political Parties: An Introductory Guide. Harmondsworth: Penguin.Google Scholar

Hoffman, Barak D., and Long, James D.. 2013. “Parties, Ethnicity, and Voting in African Elections.” Comparative Politics 45 (2):127–146.Google Scholar

Hornsby, Charles. 2012. Kenya: A History since Independence. New York, NY: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar

Howard, Marc M., and Roessler, Philip G.. 2006. “Liberalizing Electoral Outcomes in Competitive Authoritarian Regimes.” American Journal of Political Science 50 (2):365–381.Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch (HRW). 2002. Kenya's Unfinished Democracy: A Human Rights Agenda for the New Government. Washington, DC: Human Rights Watch.Google Scholar

Huntington, Samuel P. 1968. Political Order in Changing Societies. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Huntington, Samuel P. 1991. The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar

Huntington, Samuel P., and Moore, Clement Henry. 1970. Authoritarian Politics in Modern Society: The Dynamics of Established One-Party Systems. New York, NY: Basic Books.Google Scholar

Hyde, Susan D. 2011. The Pseudo-Democrat's Dilemma: Why Election Observation Became an International Norm. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Hyde, Susan D., and Marinov, Nikolay. 2012. “Which Elections Can Be Lost?” Political Analysis 20 (2):191–201.Google Scholar

Hyden, Goran. 1980. Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania: Underdevelopment and an Uncaptured Peasantry. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Hyden, Goran. 1999. “Top-Down Democratization in Tanzania.” Journal of Democracy 10 (4):142–155.Google Scholar

Hyden, Goran, and Leys, Colin. 1972. “Elections and Politics in Single-Party Systems: The Case of Kenya and Tanzania.” British Journal of Political Science 2 (4):389–420.Google Scholar

Iliffe, John. 1969. “The Age of Improvement and Differentiation (1907–45).” In A History of Tanzania, edited by Kimambo, Isaria N. and Temu, Anrew J., 123–161. Nairobi: East African Publishing House.Google Scholar

Iliffe, John. 1973. Modern Tanzanians: A Volume of Biographies. Nairobi: East African Publishing House.Google Scholar

Ingle, Clyde R. 1972. From Village to State in Tanzania: The Politics of Rural Development. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

International Crisis Group (ICG). 2010. Cameroon: The Dangers of a Fracturing Regime. Brussels: International Crisis Group.Google Scholar

Isaacman, Allen F., and Isaacman, Barbara. 1983. Mozambique: From Colonialism to Revolution, 1900–1982. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Ishiyama, John T. 1997. “The Sickle or the Rose? Previous Regime Types and the Evolution of the Ex-Communist Parties in Post-Communist Politics.” Comparative Political Studies 30 (3):299–330.Google Scholar

Ishiyama, John T., and Quinn, John Hames. 2006. “African Phoenix? Explaining the Performance of the Formerly Dominant Parties in Africa.” Party Politics 12 (3):317–340.Google Scholar

Jackson, Robert, and Rosberg, Carl. 1982. Personal Rule in Black Africa: Prince, Autocrat, Prophet, Tyrant. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Jarvik, Laurence. 2007. “NGOs: A New Class in International Relations.” Orbis 51 (2):217–238.Google Scholar

Johnson, Willard R. 1970. The Cameroon Federation: Political Integration in a Fragmented Society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Joseph, Richard. 1977. Radical Nationalism in Cameroun: Social Origins of the UPC Rebellion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Joseph, Richard, ed. 1978. Gaullist Africa: Cameroon under Ahmadu Ahidjo. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing.Google Scholar

Kaiser, Paul J. 1996. “Structural Adjustment and the Fragile Nation: The Demise of Social Unity in Tanzania.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 34 (2):227–237.Google Scholar

Kalyvas, Stathis N. 1999. “The Decay and Breakdown of Communist One-Party Systems.” Annual Review of Political Science 2:323–343.Google Scholar

Kamga, Gerard Emmanuel Kamdem. 2015. “The Origin and Development of Emergency Regimes in Cameroon.” Fundamina: A Journal of Legal History 21 (2):289–312.Google Scholar

Kanyinga, Karuti. 2003. “Limitations of Political Liberalization: Parties and Electoral Politics in Kenya, 1992–2002.” In The Politics of Transition in Kenya: From KANU to NARC, edited by Oyugi, Walter O., Wanyande, Peter and Odhiambo-Mbai, C., 96–127. Nairobi: Heinrich Boll Foundation.Google Scholar

Karl, Terry Lynn. 1990. “Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America.” Comparative Politics 23 (1):1–21.Google Scholar

Kaya, Ruchan, and Bernhard, Michael. 2013. “Are Elections Mechanisms of Authoritarian Stability or Democratization? Evidence from Postcommunist Eurasia.” Perspectives on Politics 11 (3):734–752.Google Scholar

Keefer, Philip. 2007. “Clientelism, Credibility, and the Policy Choices of Young Democracies.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (4):804–821.Google Scholar

Kelley, Judith G. 2012a. “International Influences on Elections in New Multiparty States.” Annual Review of Political Science 15:203–220.Google Scholar

Kelley, Judith G. 2012b. Monitoring Democracy: When International Observation Works, and Why it Often Fails. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

King, Gary, Keohane, Robert O., and Verba, Sidney. 1994. Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Methodology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Kitschelt, Herbert. 1994. The Transformation of European Social Democracy. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kitschelt, Herbert. 2000. “Linkages between Citizens and Politicians in Democratic Politics.” Comparative Political Studies 33 (6/7):845–879.Google Scholar

Kitschelt, Herbert, and Singer, Matthew. 2015. “Linkage Strategies of Authoritarian Legacy Parties under Conditions of Democratic Party Competition.” Paper presented at Life After Dictatorship: Authoritarian Successor Parties Worldwide Conference, University of Notre Dame, IN.Google Scholar

Kitschelt, Herbert, Mansfeldova, Zdenka, Markowski, Radoslaw, and Tóka, Gábor. 1999. Post-Communist Party Systems: Competition, Representation, and Inter-Party Cooperation. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Knack, Stephen. 2004. “Does Foreign Aid Promote Democracy?” International Studies Quarterly 48 (1):251–266.Google Scholar

Kofele-Kale, Ndiva, ed. 1980. An African Experiment in Nation Building: The Bilingual Cameroon Republic since Reunification. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Kofele-Kale, Ndiva. 1986. “Ethnicity, Regionalism, and Political Power: A Post-Mortem of Ahidjo's Cameroon.” In The Political Economy of Cameroon, edited by Schatzberg, Michael G. and Zartman, William I., 53–82. New York, NY: Praeger.Google Scholar

Konings, Piet. 1996. “The Post-Colonial State and Economic and Political Reforms in Cameroon.” In Liberalization in the Developing World: Institutional and Economic Change in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, edited by Jiberto, Alex Fernandez and Mommen, Andre, 244–265. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar

Konings, Piet. 2003. “Privatisation and Ethno-Regional Protest in Cameroon.” African Spectrum 38 (1):5–26.Google Scholar

Konings, Piet, and Nyamnjoh, Francis. 2004. “President Paul Biya and the “Anglophone Problem” in Cameroon.” In The Leadership Challenge in Africa: Cameroon under Paul Biya, edited by Mbaku, John Mukum and Takougang, Joseph, 191–234. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.Google Scholar

Kramon, Eric, and Posner, Daniel N.. 2013. “Who Benefits from Distributive Politics? How the Outcomes One Studies Affect the Answers One Gets.” Perspectives on Politics 11 (2):461–474.Google Scholar

Krieger, Milton. 2008. Cameroon's Social Democratic Front: Its History & Prospects as an Opposition Political Party (1990–2011). Bamenda: Langaa RPCIG.Google Scholar

Kuenzi, Michelle, and Lambright, Gina. 2001. “Party System Institutionalization in 30 African Countries.” Party Politics 7 (4):437–468.Google Scholar

Kuenzi, Michelle, and Lambright, Gina 2005. “Party Systems and Democratic Consolidation in Africa's Electoral Regimes.” Party Politics 11 (4):423–446.Google Scholar

Kuran, Timur. 1997. Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Lange, Matthew K. 1995. “British Colonial Legacies and Political Development.” World Development 32 (6):905–922.Google Scholar

Le Vine, Victor T. 1964. The Cameroons: From Mandate to Independence. Berkeley, CA: The University of California Press.Google Scholar

Le Vine, Victor T. 1971. The Cameroon Federal Republic. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Le Vine, Victor T. 1986. “Leadership and Regime Changes in Perspective.” In The Political Economy of Cameroon, edited by Schatzberg, Michael G. and Zartman, William I., 20–52. New York, NY: Praeger.Google Scholar

LeBas, Adrienne. 2011. From Protest to Parties: Party-Building and Democratization in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Lebovic, James H., and Voeten, Erik. 2009. “The Cost of Shame: International Organizations and Foreign Aid in the Punishment of Human Rights Violators.” Journal of Peace Research 46 (1):79–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lehoucq, Fabrice. 2003. “Electoral Fraud: Causes, Types, and Consequences.” Annual Review of Political Science 6:233–256.Google Scholar

Leo, Christopher. 1981. “Who Benefited from the Million-Acre Scheme? Toward a Class Analysis of Kenya's Transition to Independence.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 15 (2):201–222.Google Scholar

Levitsky, Steven. 1998. “Institutionalization and Peronism The Concept, the Case and the Case for Unpacking the Concept.” Party Politics 4 (1):77–92.Google Scholar

Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucan. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucan 2012. “Beyond Patronage: Violent Struggle, Ruling Party Cohesion, and Authoritarian Durability.” Perspectives on Politics 10 (4):869–899.Google Scholar

Lieberman, Evan S. 2001. “Causal Inference in Historical-Institutional Analysis.” Comparative Political Studies 34 (9):1011–1035.Google Scholar

Lindberg, Staffan I. 2006a. Democracy and Elections in Africa. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Lindberg, Staffan I. 2006b. “Tragic Protest: Why do Opposition Parties Boycott Elections?” In Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition, edited by Schedler, Andreas, 149–163. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Lindberg, Staffan I., ed. 2009a. Democratization by Elections: a New Mode of Transition. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Lindberg, Staffan I. 2009b. “The Power of Elections in Africa Revisited.” In Democratization by Elections: A New Mode of Transition, edited by Lindberg, Staffan I, 25–46. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Linz, Juan J. 2000. Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar

Linz, Juan J., and Stepan, Alfred C.. 1996. Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Lofchie, Michael. 1994. “The Politics of Agricultural Policy.” In Beyond Capitalism vs. Socialism in Kenya & Tanzania, edited by Barkan, Joel D., 129–174. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2004. “Divided They Rule: The Management and Manipulation of Political Opposition.” Comparative Politics 36 (2):159–179.Google Scholar

Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2009. “Legislative Elections in Hegemonic Authoritarian Regimes: Competitive Clientelism and Resistance to Democratization.” In Democratization by Elections: A New Mode of Transition?, edited by Lindberg, Staffan I, 226–245. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Lynch, Gabrielle. 2011. I Say to You: Ethnic Politics and the Kalenjin in Kenya. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Lynch, Gabrielle, and Crawford, Gordon. 2011. “Democratization in Africa 1990–2010: An Assessment.” Democratization 18 (2):275–310.Google Scholar

Magaloni, Beatriz. 2006. Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and Its Demise in Mexico. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Magaloni, Beatriz. 2008. “Credible Power-Sharing and the Longevity of Authoritarian Rule.” Comparative Political Studies 41 (4–5):715–741.Google Scholar

Mahoney, James. 2000. “Path Dependence in Historical Sociology.” Theory and Society 29 (4):507–548.Google Scholar

Mahoney, James, and Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, eds. 2003. Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Mainwaring, Scott, and Scully, Timothy. 1995. Building Democratic Institutions: Party Systems in Latin America. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Malesky, Edmund, and Schuler, Paul. 2011. “The Single-Party Dictator's Dilemma: Information in Elections without Opposition.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 36 (4):491–530.Google Scholar

Manion, Melanie. 2004. Corruption by Design: Building Clean Government in Mainland China and Hong Kong. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Manning, Carrie. 1998. “Constructing Opposition in Mozambique: RENAMO as political party.” Journal of Southern African Studies 24 (1):161–189.Google Scholar

Manning, Carrie. 2005. “Assessing African Party Systems after the Third Wave.” Party Politics 11 (6):707–727.Google Scholar

Manning, Carrie. 2007. “The Mozambican Experience: FRELIMO and RENAMO.” In From Revolutionary Movements to Political Parties: Cases from Latin America and Africa, edited by Deonandan, Kalowatie, Close, David and Prevost, Gary, 181–210. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Maro, Paul S., and Mlay, Wilfred F.. 1979. “Decentralization and the Organization of Space in Tanzania.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 49 (3):291–301.Google Scholar

Marshall, Judith. 1990. “Structural Adjustment and Social Policy in Mozambique.” Review of African Political Economy 17 (47):28–43.Google Scholar

Martin, Guy. 1995. “Continuity and Change in Franco-African Relations.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 33 (1):1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mascarenhas, Adolpho. 1979. “After Villagization – What?” In Towards Socialism in Tanzania, edited by Mwansasu, Bismark U. and Pratt, Cranford, 145–168. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar

Mattes, Robert, and Bratton, Michael. 2007. “Learning about Democracy in Africa: Awareness, Performance, and Experience.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (1):192–217.Google Scholar

McCoy, Jennifer L., and Hartlyn, Jonathan. 2009. “The Relative Powerlessness of Elections in Latin America.” In Democratization by Elections: A New Mode of Transition, edited by Lindberg, Staffan I., 47–76. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

McHenry, Dean E. 1994. Limited Choices: The Political Struggle for Socialism in Tanzania. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar

Migdal, Joel S. 1988. Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Migot-Adholla, S. E. 1984. “Rural Development Policy and Equality.” In Politics and Public Policy in Kenya and Tanzania, edited by Barkan, Joel D., 199–232. New York, NY: Praeger.Google Scholar

Mikecz, Robert. 2012. “Interviewing Elites: Addressing Methodological Issues.” Qualitative Inquiry 18 (6):482–493.Google Scholar

Miller, Norman N. 1970. “The Rural African Party: Political Participation in Tanzania.” The American Political Science Review 64 (2):549–571.Google Scholar

Miti, Katabaro. 1980. “Party and Politics in Tanzania.” Utafiti 5 (2):187–198.Google Scholar

Mmuya, Max, and Chaligha, Amon. 1994. Political Parties and Democracy in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: University of Dar Es Salaam Press.Google Scholar

Molony, Thomas. 2014. Nyerere: The Early Years. Suffolk: James Currey.Google Scholar

Moore, Barrington Jr. 1966. Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.Google Scholar

Morgenthau, Ruth Schachter. 1967. Political Parties in French-Speaking West Africa. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar

Morse, Yonatan L. 2012. “The Era of Electoral Authoritarianism.” World Politics 64 (01):161–198.Google Scholar

Morse, Yonatan L. 2014. “Party Matters: The Institutional Origins of Competitive Hegemony in Tanzania.” Democratization 21 (4):655–667.Google Scholar

Mozaffar, Shaheen, and Scarrit, James R.. 2005. “The Puzzle of African Party Systems.” Party Politics 11 (4):399–421.Google Scholar

Mueller, Susanne. 1984. “Government and Opposition in Kenya, 1966–9.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 22 (3):399–427.Google Scholar

Mueller, Susanne. 2011. “Dying to Win: Elections, Political Violence, and Institutional Decay in Kenya.” Journal of Contemporary African Studies 29 (1):99–117.Google Scholar

Mukandala, Rwekaza S. 2000. “Grassroots Institutions of Governance.” In Governance and Development at the Grassroots in Tanzania, edited by Mukandala, Rwekaza S. and Gasarasi, Charles, 6–43. Dar es Salaam: Research and Education for Democracy in Tanzania.Google Scholar

Munck, Gerardo. 2006. “Drawing Boundaries: How to Craft Intermediate Regime Categories.” In Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition, edited by Schedler, Andreas, 35–57. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar

Munck, Gerardo, and Verkuilen, Jay. 2002. “Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: Evaluating Alternative Indices.” Comparative Political Studies 35 (1):5–34.Google Scholar

Mundt, Robert J. 1997. “Côte d'Ivoire: Continuity and Change in a Semi-Democracy.” In Political Reform in Francophone Africa, edited by Clark, John F. and Gardinier, David E., 182–203. Boulder, CO: Westview Publishers.Google Scholar

Mwakikagile, Godfrey. 2006. Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era. London: New Africa Press.Google Scholar

Mwansasu, Bismarck U. 1979. “The Changing role of the Tanganyika African National Union.” In Towards Socialism in Tanzania, edited by Mwansasu, B. U., 169–192. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar

Mwase, Ngila, and Raphael, Mary. 2001. “The 1995 Presidential Elections in Tanzania.” The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 359 (1):245–269.Google Scholar

Ndegwa, Stephen. 1998. “The Incomplete Transition: The Constitutional and Electoral Context in Kenya.” Africa Today 45 (2):193–211.Google Scholar

Ndegwa, Stephen. 2003. “Kenya: Third Time Lucky?” Journal of Democracy 14 (3):145–158.Google Scholar

Ndongko, Wilfred A. 1986. “The Political Economy of Development in Cameroon: Relations between the State, Indigenous Business, and Foreign Investors.” In The Political Economy of Cameroon, edited by Schatzberg, Michael G. and Zartman, William I., 33–110. New York, NY: Praeger.Google Scholar

Ngoh, Victor Julius. 2004. “Biya and the Transition to Democracy.” In The Leadership Challenge in Africa: Cameroon under Paul Biya, edited by Mbaku, John Mukum and Takougang, Joseph, 427–452. Trenton, NJ: African World Press.Google Scholar

Norris, Pippa, Coma, Ferran Martinez i, Nai, Allesandro, and Gromping, Max. 2016. The Expert Survey of Perceptions of Electoral Integrity, Release 4.5.Google Scholar

Nwajiaku, Kathryn. 1994. “The National Conferences in Benin and Togo Revisited.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 32 (3):429–447.Google Scholar

Nyamnjoh, Francis, and Rowlands, Michael. 1998. “Elite Association and the Politics of Belonging in Cameroon.” Africa 68 (3):320–337.Google Scholar

O'Donnell, Guillermo, Schmitter, Philippe, and Whitehead, Laurence, eds. 1986. Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Okumu, John, and Holmquist, Frank. 1984. “Party and Party-State Relations.” Politics and Public Policy in Kenya and Tanzania, edited by Barkan, Joel D., 45–69. New York, NY: Praeger.Google Scholar

Ottaway, Marina. 2003. Democracy Challenged: The Rise of Semi-Authoritarianism. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Google Scholar

Page, Scott E. 2006. “Path Dependence.” Quarterly Journal of Political Science 1 (1):87–115.Google Scholar

Panebianco, Angelo. 1988. Political Parties: Organization and Power. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Parsons, Timothy H. 2003. The 1964 Army Mutinies and the Making of Modern East Africa. Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar

Pempel, T. J., ed. 1990. Uncommon Democracies: The One Party Dominant Regimes. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Pepinsky, Thomas. 2014. “The Institutional Turn in Comparative Authoritarianism.” British Journal of Political Science 44 (3):631–653.Google Scholar

Pierson, Paul. 2004. Politics in Time: History, Institutions, and Social Analysis. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Platner, Marc F. 2015. “Is Democracy in Decline?” Journal of Democracy 28 (1):5–10.Google Scholar

Posner, Daniel. 2004. “Measuring Ethnic Fractionalization in Africa.” American Journal of Political Science 48 (4):849–863.Google Scholar

Posner, Daniel. 2005. Institutions and Ethnic Politics in Africa. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Posner, Daniel, and Young, Daniel J.. 2007. “The Institutionalization of Political Power in Africa.” Journal of Democracy 18 (3):126–140.Google Scholar

Posusney, Marsha Pripstein. 2004. “Enduring Authoritarianism: Middle East Lessons for Comparative Theory.” Comparative Politics 36 (2):127–138.Google Scholar

Putnam, Robert D. 1994. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Ragin, Charles. 2008. Rethinking Social Inquiry: Fuzzy Sets and Beyond. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Rakner, Lise, and van de Walle, Nicolas. 2009. “Opposition Parties and Incumbent Presidents: The New Dynamics of Electoral Competition in Africa.” In Democratization by Elections: A New Mode of Transition, edited by Lindberg, Staffan I, 202–225. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Randall, Vicky, and Svåsand, Lars. 2002a. “Party Institutionalization in New Democracies.” Party Politics 8 (1):5–29.Google Scholar

Randall, Vicky, and Svåsand, Lars 2002b. “Political Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Africa.” Democratization 9 (3):30–52.Google Scholar

Reed, Michael C. 1987. “Gabon: A Neo-Colonial Enclave of Enduring French Interest.” Journal of Modern African Studies 25 (2):283–320.Google Scholar

Resnick, Danielle. 2012. “Opposition Parties and the Urban Poor in African Democracies.” Comparative Political Studies 45 (11):1351–1378.Google Scholar

Riedl, Rachel B. 2014. Authoritarian Origins of Democratic Party Systems in Africa. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Roberts, Tyson. 2008. “The Legislative Election in Togo, October 2007.” Electoral Studies 27 (3):558–561.Google Scholar

Roessler, Philip G. 2005. “Donor-Induced Democratization and the Privatization of State Violence in Kenya and Rwanda.” Comparative Politics 37 (2):207–227.Google Scholar

Roessler, Philip G., and Howard, Marc M.. 2009. “Post-Cold War Political Regimes: When Do Elections Matter?” In Democratization by Elections, edited by Lindberg, Staffan I., 101–127. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Rose, Richard, and Shin, Doh Chull. 2001. “Democratization Backwards: The Problem of Third Wave Democracies.” British Journal of Political Science 31 (2):331–354.Google Scholar

Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, Stephens, Evelyne Huber, and Stephens, John D.. 1992. Capitalist Development and Democracy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Samoff, Joel. 1974. Tanzania: Local Politics and the Structure of Power. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar

Samoff, Joel. 1987. “Single Party Competitive Elections in Tanzania.” In Elections in Independent Africa, edited by Hayward, Fred M., 148–186. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Sanger, Clyde, and Nottingham, John. 1964. “The Kenyan General Election of 1963.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 2 (1):1–40.Google Scholar

Santiso, Carlos, and Loada, Augustin. 2003. “Explaining the Unexpected: Electoral Reform and Democratic Governance in Burkina Faso.” Journal of Modern African Studies 41 (3):395–419.Google Scholar

Sartori, Giovanni. 1976. Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Schaffer, Frederic Charles, ed. 2007. Elections for Sale: The Causes and Consequences of Vote Buying. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar

Schedler, Andreas, ed. 2006a. Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.Google Scholar

Schedler, Andreas. 2006b. “The Logic of Electoral Authoritarianism.” In Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition, edited by Schedler, Andreas, 2–34. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar

Schedler, Andreas. 2013. The Politics of Uncertainty: Sustaining and Subverting Electoral Authoritarianism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Schneider, Carsten Q., and Wagemann, Claudius. 2012. Set-Theoretic Methods for the Social Sciences: A Guide to Qualitative Comparative Analysis. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Schraeder, Peter, ed. 2002. Exporting Democracy: Rhetoric vs. Reality. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Seeberg, Merete Bach. 2014. “State Capacity and the Paradox of Authoritarian Elections.” Democratization 21 (7):1265–1285.Google Scholar

Seely, Jennifer C. 2009. The Legacies of Transition Government in Africa: The Cases of Benin and Togo. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Shehim, Kassim, and Searing, James. 1980. “Djibouti and the Question of Afar Nationalism.” African Affairs 19 (315):209–226.Google Scholar

Shinn, David H., and Eisenman, Joshua. 2012. China and Africa: A Century of Engagements. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar

Slater, Dan. 2010. Ordering Power: Contentious Politics and Authoritarian Leviathans in Southeast Asia. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Smith, Benjamin. 2005. “Life of the Party.” World Politics 57:421–451.Google Scholar

Smith, Edget William. 1973. Nyerere of Tanzania. London: Littlehampton Book Services Ltd.Google Scholar

Smith, Ian. 2013. “Election Boycotts and Hybrid Regime Survival.” Comparative Political Studies 20 (10):1–23.Google Scholar

Snyder, Richard. 2006. “Beyond Electoral Authoritarianism: The Spectrum of Nondemocratic Regimes.” In Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition, edited by Schedler, Andreas, 292–310. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar

Socpa, Antoin. 2006. “Bailleurs Autochtones et Locataires Allogenes: Enjeu Foncier et Participation Politique au Cameroun.” African Studies Review 49 (2):45–67.Google Scholar

Solinger, Dorothy J. 2001. “Ending One-Party Dominance: Korea, Taiwan, Mexico.” Journal of Democracy 12 (1):30–42.Google Scholar

Solomon, Peter. 2007. “Courts and Judges in Authoritarian Regimes.” World Politics 60 (1):122–145.Google Scholar

Steeves, Jeffrey. 2006. “Presidential Succession in Kenya: The Transition from Moi to Kibaki.” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 44 (2):211–233.Google Scholar

Stokke, Olav, ed. 1995. Aid and Political Conditionality. New York, NY: Frank Cass.Google Scholar

Stren, Richard, Halfani, Mohamed, and Malombe, Joyce. 1994. “Coping with Urbanization and Urban Policy.” In Beyond Capitalism vs. Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania, edited by Barkan, Joel D., 175–200. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Svolik, Milan W. 2012. The Politics of Authoritarian Rule. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Takougang, Joseph. 2004a. “The Demise of Biya's New Deal in Cameroon, 1982–1992.” In The Leadership Challenge in Africa: Cameroon under Paul Biya, edited by Mbaku, John Mukum and Takougang, Joseph, 95–122. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.Google Scholar

Takougang, Joseph. 2004b. “The Nature of Politics in Cameroon.” In The Leadership Challenge in Africa: Cameroon's Political Crossroads, edited by Mbaku, John Mukum and Takougang, Joseph, 67–94. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.Google Scholar

Takougang, Joseph, and Krieger, Milton. 1998. Africa State and Society in the 1990s: Cameroon's Political Crossroads. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Tansey, Oisin. 2007. “Process Tracing and Elite Interviewing: A Case for Non-Probability Sampling.” PS: Political Science and Politics 40 (4):765–772.Google Scholar

Temu, Andrew J. 1969. “The Rise and Triumph of Nationalism.” In A History of Tanzania, edited by Kimambo, Isaria N. and Temu, Andrew J., 189–213. Nairobi: East African Publishing House.Google Scholar

Temu, Andrew J., and Due, Jean M.. 2000. “The Business Environment in Tanzania after Socialism: Challenges of Reforming Banks, Parastatals, Taxation and the Civil Service.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 38 (4):683–712.Google Scholar

Throup, David. 2003. The Kenya General Election: December 27, 2002. Africa Notes. Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies.Google Scholar

Throup, David, and Hornsby, Charles. 1998. Multi-Party Politics in Kenya: Kenyatta and Moi and the Triumph of the System in the 1992 Election. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Tordoff, William. 1967. “Tanzania: Democracy and the One Party State.” Government and Opposition 2 (4):599–614.Google Scholar

Toungara, Jeanne Maddox. 2001. “Ethnicity and Political Crisis in Côte d'Ivoire.” Journal of Democracy 12 (3):63–72.Google Scholar

Tripp, Aili Mari. 1997. Changing the Rules: The Politics of Liberalization and the Urban Informal Economy in Tanzania. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Tripp, Aili Mari. 2000. “Political Reform in Tanzania: The Struggle for Associational Autonomy.” Comparative Politics 32 (2):191–214.Google Scholar

Tripp, Aili Mari. 2010. Museveni's Uganda: Paradoxes of Power in a Hybrid Regime. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

van de Walle, Nicolas. 1994. “Neopatrimonialism and Democracy in Africa, With an Illustration from Cameroon.” In Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub Saharan Africa, edited by Widner, Jennifer A., 129–157. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

van de Walle, Nicolas. 2001. African Economies and the Politics of Permanent Crisis, 1979–1999. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

van de Walle, Nicolas. 2002. “Africa's Range of Regimes.” Journal of Democracy 13 (2):66–80.Google Scholar

van de Walle, Nicolas. 2003. “Presidentialism and Clientelism in Africa's Emerging Party Systems.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 41 (2):297–321.Google Scholar

van de Walle, Nicolas. 2006. “Tipping Games: When do Opposition Parties Coalesce?” In Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition, edited by Schedler, Andreas, 105–127. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar

van Donge, Jan Kees, and Liviga, Athumani. 1986a. “In Defence of the Tanzanian Parliament.” Parliamentary Affairs 39 (2):230–240.Google Scholar

van Donge, Jan Kees, and Liviga, Athumani 1986b. “Tanzanian Political Culture and the Cabinet.” Journal of Modern African Studies 24 (4):619–639.Google Scholar

van Evera, Stephen. 1997. Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Vanderhill, Rachel. 2012. Promoting Authoritarianism Abroad. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Vengroff, Richard, and Creevey, Lucy. 1997. “Senegal: The Evolution of a Quasi Democracy.” In Political Reform in Francophone Africa, edited by Clark, John F. and Gardinier, David E, 204–222. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Villalón, Leonardo A. 1999. “Generational Changes, Political Stagnation, and the Evolving Dynamics of Religion and Politics in Senegal.” Africa Today 46 (3):129–147.Google Scholar

Wahman, Michael. 2013. “Opposition Coalitions and Democratization by Election.” Government and Opposition 48 (1):3–32.Google Scholar

Waldner, David. 1999. State Building and Late Development. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Waldner, David. 2015. “What Makes Process Tracing Good? Causal Mechanisms, Causal Inference, and the Completeness Standard in Comparative Politics.” In Process Tracing: From Metaphor to Analytic Tool, edited by Bennett, Andrew and Checkel, Jeffrey T., 126–152. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Wallerstein, Immanuel. 1966. “The Decline of the Party in Single-Party African States.” In Political Parties and Political Development, edited by LaPalombara, Joseph and Weiner, Myron, 201–214. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Wantchekon, Leonard. 2003. “Clientelism and Voting Behavior: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Benin.” World Politics 55 (3):399–422.Google Scholar

Way, Lucan. 2002. “Pluralism by Default in Moldova.” Journal of Democracy 13 (4):127–141.Google Scholar

Wedeen, Lisa. 1999. Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Weghorst, Keith R., and Lindberg, Staffan I.. 2013. “What Drives the Swing Voter in Africa?” American Journal of Political Science 57 (3):717–734.Google Scholar

Widner, Jennifer A. 1992. The Rise of a Party-State in Kenya: From “Harambee!” to “Nyayo!”. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Widner, Jennifer A. 1994. Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Wintrobe, Ronald. 1998. The Political Economy of Dictatorship. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Wright, Joseph. 2008. “Do Authoritarian Legislatures Constrain? How Legislatures Affect Economic Growth and Investment.” American Journal of Political Science 52 (2):322–343.Google Scholar

Wright, Joseph. 2009. “How Foreign Aid Can Foster Democratization in Authoritarian Regimes.” American Journal of Political Science 53 (3):552–571.Google Scholar

Yates, Douglas A. 1996. The Rentier State in Africa: Oil Rent Dependency and Neocolonialism in the Republic of Gabon. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.Google Scholar

Young, Crawford. 1994. The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Zakaria, Fareed. 1997. “The Rise of Illiberal Democracy.” Foreign Affairs 76 (2):22–43.Google Scholar

Zolberg, Aristide R. 1966. Creating Political Order: The Party-States of West Africa. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.Google Scholar