Led by Genghis Khan and, later, by his sons and his grandson Kublai Khan, the Mongols crafted an empire between 1206 and 1368 that included much of Asia, stretching from Korea in the east to the Danube in Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean lands in the west (see Figure 3.1). For a time, the empire also included parts of Russia, Poland, Hungary, Syria, Iraq and Persia. It is by far the largest contiguous land empire in the world, covering about 12 million square miles. In 25 years, the Mongols conquered more territory and peoples than the Romans did in 400 years, and five times the area conquered by Alexander the Great. To further appreciate its military prowess, we can compare it to the European and Muslim powers of the time. While the combined powers of Europe struggled to capture a few ports on the Mediterranean from the Muslims in 200 years, within 40 years, the Mongols conquered every Muslim kingdom and city between Central Asia and the Mediterranean Sea.

How did a relatively poor people, numbering around a million, living in a remote part of the world, come to conquer and rule such a great territory, encompassing over a hundred million people? They did so through innovation in rights, communications, administration, trade and especially warfare. These innovations developed through a great openness to ideas, tools and talent from conquered peoples, while empowering them with new rights, including meritocracy, travel and trade privileges.

The Mongols were far from being merely a wild, barbaric horde of looters and killers, as some may believe. Rather, the Mongol army was a well- structured, well- disciplined and brilliantly commanded force of warriors using innovative tools, strategies and tactics.

At the root of Genghis Khan's huge military achievements were the traditional Mongolian horses and their riders. From these resources, the Mongols developed a new military technique, which we call swift equine warfare. Both horses and riders had great potential. Genghis Khan undertook the task of transforming thousands of them into a disciplined, structured and efficient fighting force. Led by Genghis Khan, Mongol military leaders added strategic and tactical genius, embraced new tools of war and provided excellent organization and communication.