Introduction

Malaysia is presently witnessing a growing phenomenon of publicly expressed hatred against Shia Muslims, who are portrayed as representing a ‘dangerous’ form of ‘deviance’ from ‘true Islam’ by a broad, ideologically like-minded coalition of state and non-state actors, with explicit support from the country's political leadership. The historical trajectory of this phenomenon can be traced back at least to the late 1990s, but has escalated to unprecedented levels following the outbreak of the Syrian civil war in 2011 and its sectarian framing along the Sunni/Shia divide. Since 2011 Muslim political actors from both government and opposition parties have exploited growing anti-Shia sentiments among the Malay population for well-calculated attacks on political opponents by accusing them of being ‘secret Shias’. Simultaneously, actual members of Malaysia's small Shia communities are suffering from far-reaching discrimination in their everyday lives. This situation, and the state-Islamic bureaucracy's policies more generally, sharply contradict the government's self-portrayal and wellstaged international perception of Malaysia as being a role model Muslim majority country spearheading a ‘Global Movement of Moderates’ (Gerakan Kesederhanaan Global).

This chapter will contextualise the escalation of anti-Shia enmities in Malaysia in four steps: First, a description of how an initial fascination with the Shia-led Islamic Revolution of Iran (1978/9) among Malaysian religio-political activists has gradually been replaced by a more narrowly defined agenda of Sunni orthodoxy, as exemplified by the Islamic Party of Malaysia's (Parti Islam SeMalaysia, PAS) shifting attitude towards Shia Islam. The second step is a demonstration of how anti-Shia sentiments have been fostered by the state's Islamic bureaucracy and political leaders, and illustrate exemplary instances of institutionalised anti-Shia discrimination. Third, it details of how anti-Shia narratives are expressing and simultaneously further fuelling popular hatred, suspicion and disgust circulating on the Malaysian cyberspace, where ‘concerned’ citizens discuss and visualise conspiracy theories according to which Shias are, by definition, ‘deviant’ (or even ‘infidel’), ‘dangerous’ and pursue ‘evil plans’ in coalition with ‘Israel and the Jews’. Such ideas acquire discursive credibility through constant repetition, and by the state-authorities’ like-minded anti-Shia policies which are accompanied by largely similar justifying narratives.