Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- List of Figures
- Acknowledgments
- Abbreviations
- Dramatis Personae
- Nixon, Kissinger, and U.S. Foreign Policy Making
- Introduction
- 1 Structures, Processes, and Personalities in U.S. Foreign Policy
- 2 The Making of U.S. Foreign Policy During the Nixon-Kissinger Years
- 3 The Incursion into Cambodia, Spring 1970
- 4 The Jordanian Crisis, September 1970
- 5 The India-Pakistan War, December 1971
- 6 The Yom Kippur War, October 1973
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Index
- Plate section
- References
1 - Structures, Processes, and Personalities in U.S. Foreign Policy
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 17 August 2009
Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- List of Figures
- Acknowledgments
- Abbreviations
- Dramatis Personae
- Nixon, Kissinger, and U.S. Foreign Policy Making
- Introduction
- 1 Structures, Processes, and Personalities in U.S. Foreign Policy
- 2 The Making of U.S. Foreign Policy During the Nixon-Kissinger Years
- 3 The Incursion into Cambodia, Spring 1970
- 4 The Jordanian Crisis, September 1970
- 5 The India-Pakistan War, December 1971
- 6 The Yom Kippur War, October 1973
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Index
- Plate section
- References
Summary
The vast bulk of ‘liberals’ in the U.S. Foreign Service / State Department establishment believe that the allegedly thin margin of Mr. Nixon's victory will make it impossible for the new Nixon team to impose any deep or meaningful change either upon the internal system which has nurtured them or upon the outward working of the system in terms of U.S. foreign policy operations.
Bryce Harlow (Nixon's aide), 11 November 1968The complex nature of the foreign policy machinery during the Nixon years calls for the use of more than a single theoretical framework for the dual purpose of advancing knowledge and theory testing. Indeed, Henry Kissinger himself acknowledged that ‘[in] the world in which we find ourselves now…it is necessary for us to conduct a more complicated foreign policy without the simple categories of a more fortunate historical past.’
While this book does not purport to use the case studies to validate or refute alternative foreign policy analysis (FPA) models, it is nonetheless important to provide an analytical framework which will help generate more general observations about the interplay of structures, processes, and personalities in foreign policy crisis decision-making. Rather than providing alternative theoretical explanations to historical events or decisions, this book examines how the decision-making process within a particular crisis management group was facilitated by certain organisational structures that were put in place by the president. For this purpose, this chapter outlines pertinent approaches to the study of foreign policy decision-making in the FPA literature.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Nixon, Kissinger, and US Foreign Policy MakingThe Machinery of Crisis, pp. 12 - 39Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2008
References
, Kissinger and the Meaning of History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 123Google Scholar
, ‘Foreign Policy Analysis: Actor-Specific Theory and the Ground of International Relations,’ Foreign Policy Analysis, 1:1 (March 2005), 1–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘Crisis Studies and Foreign Policy Analysis: Insights, Synergies, and Challenges,’ International Studies Review, 5:2 (June 2003), 183Google Scholar
(ed.), Quantitative International Politics: Insights and Evidence (New York: Free Press, 1968), 159Google Scholar
, Foreign Policy Analysis: Classic and Contemporary Theory (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007), 49–50Google Scholar
, ‘Symbols, Rituals and Power: The Lost Dimensions of Crisis Management,’ Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 1:2 (March 1993), 36–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Constructing National Interests: The United States and the Cuban Missile Crisis (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999)Google Scholar
, ‘International Crises: A Note on Definition,’ Western Political Quarterly, 31:3 (September 1978), 356Google Scholar
and , ‘Environmental Factors in the Study of International Politics,’ in (ed.), International Politics and Foreign Policy: A Reader in Research and Theory (New York: Free Press, 1969, rev. ed.), 41–56Google Scholar
, The Making of Foreign Policy: An Analysis of Decision-Making (London: Oxford University Press, 1963)Google Scholar
, The Limits of Safety: Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993)Google Scholar
with (eds.), Decisions in Crisis: Israel, 1967 and 1973 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 1
, The Foreign Policy of Israel: Setting, Images, Process (London: Oxford University Press, 1972)Google Scholar
, ‘The Beginning, Duration, and Abatement of International Crises: Comparison in Two Conflict Arenas,’ in (ed.), International Crises: Insights from Behavioural Research (New York: Free Press, 1972), 83–105Google Scholar
, The Intermediaries: Third Parties in International Crisis (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (eds.), Conflict among Nations: Bargaining, Decision Making, and System Structure in International Crises (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977)Google Scholar
‘Crisis Decision Making,’ in et al. (eds.), Behaviour, Society, and Nuclear War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), Vol. 1, 8–37Google Scholar
, ‘Structure and Process in the Analysis of Foreign Policy Crises,’ in , , and (eds.), Foreign Policy Analysis: Continuity and Change in Its Second Generation (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995), 99–116Google Scholar
, ‘Clarifying Decisions: Assessing the Impact of Decision Structures on Foreign Policy Choices During the 1970 Jordanian Civil War,’ International Studies Quarterly, 42:4 (December 1998), 733–754CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972), 6Google Scholar
, ‘What Decision Units Shape Foreign Policy: Individual, Group, or Bureaucracy?’ Policy Studies Journal, No. 3 (Winter 1974), 166CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘National Security Advice to U.S. Presidents: Some Lessons from Thirty Years,’ World Politics, 29:2 (January 1977), 145Google Scholar
, ‘White House Boundary Roles: Marginal Men Amidst the Palace Guard,’ Presidential Studies Quarterly, 16:4 (Fall 1986), 700–715Google Scholar
, Managing the White House: An Intimate Study of the Presidency (New York: Harper & Row, 1974)Google Scholar
and , ‘Presidents, Advisors and Foreign Policy: The Effects of Leadership Style on Executive Arrangements,’ Political Psychology, 15:1 (March 1994), 75–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, The President and His Inner Circle: Leadership Style and the Advisory Process in Foreign Policy Making (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘Centralizing Advisory Systems: Presidential Influence and the U.S. Foreign Policy Decision-Making Process,’ Foreign Policy Analysis, 1:2 (July 2005), 181–206CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , ‘Organizing the White House: Structure, Environment and Organizational Governance,’ American Journal of Political Science, 31:1 (February 1987), 109–126CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, The Institutional Presidency: Organizing and Managing the White House from FDR to Clinton (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000, 2nd ed.)Google Scholar
, Good Advice: Information & Policy Making in the White House (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2000)Google Scholar
and , Man-Milieu Relationship Hypotheses in the Context of International Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1956)Google Scholar
and (eds.), Decision Making on War and Peace: The Cognitive-Rational Debate (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Press, 1997)Google Scholar
and , ‘International Decision Making: Leadership Matters,’ Foreign Policy, No. 110 (Spring 1998), 124–137CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , ‘The Role of Cognition in U.S. Foreign Policy Toward Southern Africa,’ Political Psychology, 7:3 (September 1986), 507–532CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘Political Cognition and Decision-Making,’ Political Psychology, 11:1 (1990), 83–111CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘The Political Psychology of Rational Choice Theory,’ Political Psychology, 16:1 (1995), 23–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘Rationality in Political Behavior,’ Political Psychology, 16:1 (1995), 45–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Games Advisors Play: Foreign Policy in the Nixon and Carter Administrations (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1999)Google Scholar
, ‘The Influence of Advisers on Foreign Policy Decision Making,’ The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 46:3 (June 2002), 335–364CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘Cognitive Dynamics and Images of the Enemy: Dulles and Russia,’ in , , and (eds.), Enemies in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1967), 25–96Google Scholar
(ed.), Psychological Dimensions of War (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1999), 116–142
, Perception and Misperceptions in International Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976)Google Scholar
, Persuasion and Politics: The Social Psychology of Public Opinion (Pacific Cove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1991)Google Scholar
, Crucial Decisions: Leadership in Policymaking and Crisis Management (New York: Free Press, 1989)Google Scholar
and , ‘Blindsided? September 11 and the Origins of Strategic Surprise,’ Political Psychology, 23 (2002), 601–630CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , ‘Bureaucratic Politics: A Paradigm and Some Policy Implications,’ in and (eds.), Theory and Policy in International Relations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972), 44Google Scholar
, ‘Conceptual Models and the Cuban Missile Crisis,’ American Political Science Review, 63:3 (September 1969), 693Google Scholar
, ‘Are Bureaucracies Important? (Or Allison Wonderland),’ Foreign Policy, 7 (Summer 1972), 159–179CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Models of Bounded Rationality (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982)
, ‘The Decision to Attack Iraq: A Noncompensatory Theory of Decision Making,’ Journal of Conflict Resolution, 37:4 (December 1993), 595–618CrossRefGoogle Scholar
‘How Do Leaders Make Decisions? A Poliheuristic Perspective,’ Journal of Conflict Resolution, 48:1 (February 2004), 3–13
‘Applied Decision Analysis: Utilizing Poliheuristic Theory to Explain and Predict Foreign Policy and National Security Decisions,’ International Studies Perspectives, 6:1 (February 2005), 94–98
and , ‘Degrees of Difficulty: The Effect of Israeli Policy Shifts on Syrian Peace Decisions,’ Journal of Conflict Resolution, 44:3 (June 2000), 359–377CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘Decision Making in Autocratic Regimes: A Poliheuristic Perspective,’ International Studies Perspectives, 5:1 (February 2005), 114–128CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘Decision Making in Iran's Foreign Policy: A Heuristic Approach,’ Journal of Social Affairs, 19:73 (Spring 2002), 39–53Google Scholar
, ‘Poliheuristic Theory, Bargaining, and Crisis Decision Making,’ Foreign Policy Analysis, 3:3 (July 2007), 317–344CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Bureaucratic Politics and Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1971), 293Google Scholar
, ‘The Nixon-Kissinger Foreign Policy System and U.S.-Europe Relations,’ World Politics, 28:1 (October 1975), 1–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘The Decision to Raid Entebbe: Decision Analysis Applied to Crisis Behavior,’ Journal of Conflict Resolution, 25:4 (December 1981), 677–707Google Scholar
and , ‘Rethinking Allison's Models,’ American Political Science Review, 86:2 (June 1992), 301–322CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘The Organizational Process and Bureaucratic Politics Paradigm: Retrospect and Prospect,’ International Security, 17:2 (Autumn 1992), 112–146CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘Allison and the Cuban Missile Crisis: A Review of the Bureaucratic Politics Model of Foreign Policy Decision Making,’ Millennium, 19:1 (1980), 21–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘Argumentation in Foreign Policy Settings: Britain in 1918, Munich in 1938 and Japan in 1970,’ Journal of Conflict Resolution, 21:4 (December 1977), 728Google Scholar
and , ‘Roles and Reasons in Foreign Policy Decision Making,’ British Journal of Political Science, 16:3 (July 1986), 275Google Scholar
, U.S. Foreign Policy and the Iran Hostage Crisis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Explaining Foreign Policy: U.S. Decision-Making and the Persian Gulf War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004)Google Scholar
, ‘Reinvigorating the Study of Foreign Policy Decision Making: Toward a Constructivist Approach,’ Foreign Policy Analysis, 3:1 (January 2007), 24–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, The Psychological Dimension of Foreign Policy (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill, 1968)Google Scholar
, , and (eds.), Beyond Groupthink: Political Group Dynamics and Foreign Policy-Making (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Presidential Decisions for War: Korea, Vietnam, and the Persian Gulf (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001)Google Scholar
, ‘The Case for Multiple Advocacy in Making Foreign Policy,’ American Political Science Review, 66:3 (September 1972), 751–785CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , ‘Harnessing Conflict in Foreign Policy Making: From Devil's to Multiple Advocacy,’ Presidential Studies Quarterly, 33:4 (September 2002), 484–508CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , Our Own Worst Enemy: The Unmaking of American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984)Google Scholar
and , Presidential and Foreign Policy Making: From FDR to Reagan (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1986)Google Scholar
, Social Choices and Individual Values (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1970, 2nd ed.)Google Scholar
, , and (eds.), Researching the Presidency: Vital Questions, New Approaches (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993), 111–160
, ‘The Nature of Social Influence in Groupthink: Compliance and Internalization,’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57:2 (1989), 250–260CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Decision Making: A Psychological Analysis of Conflict, Choice, and Commitment (New York: The Free Press, 1977)Google Scholar
, ‘Crisis Decision Making Reconsidered,’ Journal of Conflict Resolution, 33:3 (September 1989), 440Google Scholar
, ‘The Role of Analogies and Abstract Reasoning in Decision-Making: Evidence from the Debate over Truman's Proposal for Development Assistance,’ International Studies Quarterly, 47:2 (June 2003), 229–245CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Middle East Crisis: U.S. Decision-Making in 1958, 1970, and 1973 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 376Google Scholar
, ‘Learning, Realism, and Alliances: The Weight of the Shadow of the Past,’ World Politics, 46:4 (July 1994), 490CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Analogies at War: Korea, Munich, Dien Bien Phu, and the Vietnam Decisions of 1965 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992)Google Scholar
, ‘Hitler's Shadow: Historical Analogies and the Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait,’ Diplomacy & Statecraft, 13:4 (December 2002), 29–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Thinking in Time: The Use of History for Decision Makers (New York: The Free Press, 1986)Google Scholar
et al., ‘Resolve, Accept, or Avoid: Effects of Group Conflict on Foreign Policy Decisions,’ International Studies Review, 3:2 (Summer 2001), 133–168CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, ‘Foreign Policymaking and Group Dynamics: Where We've Been and Where We're Going,’ International Studies Review, 5:2 (June 2003), 181Google Scholar