Introduction

Imagine a program for generating combinatorial patterns of some kind, patterns such as the subsequences or permutations of a list. Suppose that each pattern is obtained from its predecessor by a single transition. For subsequences a transition i could mean “insert or delete the element at position i”. For permutations a transition i could mean “swap the item in position i with the one in position i − 1”. An algorithm for generating all patterns is called loopless if the first transition is produced in linear time and each subsequent transition in constant time. Note that it is the transitions that are produced in constant time, not the patterns; writing out a pattern is not usually possible in constant time.

Loopless algorithms were formulated in a procedural setting, and many clever tricks, such as the use of focus pointers, doubly linked lists and coroutines, have been used to construct them. This pearl and the following two explore what a purely functional approach can bring to the subject. We will calculate loopless functional versions of the Johnson–Trotter algorithm for producing permutations, the Koda–Ruskey algorithm for generating all prefixes of a forest and its generalisation to Knuth's spider spinning algorithm for generating all bit strings satisfying given inequality constraints. These novel functional algorithms rely on nothing more fancy than lists, trees and queues. The present pearl is mostly devoted to exploring the topic and giving some warm-up exercises.