These next three chapters look at the US experience of urban recovery. Urban regeneration in Europe has long been informed by US approaches and more recently, US cities have also started to observe European approaches. The context in which cities on both sides of the Atlantic operate is of course different. Nevertheless, we can enrich the debate about urban regeneration by examining this juxtaposition.

This part of the book draws mainly on insights gained from research visits to three large old industrial US cities: Pittsburgh, Baltimore and Philadelphia. These three cities are good examples of the struggle of older US cities with industrial decline and urban crisis. It also draws on the large Brookings Institution study of 302 US cities, comparing older industrial cities with a broad cross-section of cities. We draw on evidence from three case studies carried out in Louisville, Chattanooga and Akron, smaller cities that declined but have recently begun to show signs of recovery along the lines of the seven European cities we have looked at so far (see Chapter Fourteen). Figure 13.1 indicates the location of the six US cities.

This chapter gives a general overview of urban development phases in the US, using the three larger, older cities as examples. It explains how these cities developed into industrial giants and how they were subsequently hit by industrial decline. Chapter Fourteen describes how the three larger cities responded to the urban crisis, exploring both their assets and ongoing challenges. It then presents evidence of recovery from three smaller cities. Chapter Fifteen gives an overview of the lessons for European cities from the US.

US cities show some unique characteristics, the result of distinctive forms of urban development. The historical evolution of cities highlights the most important characteristics that shape current urban structures and their particular problems. This short overview examines the most important periods of urban development for older industrial cities in the US in four main phases: laying the foundations; industrialisation and rapid growth; urban maturity; urban crisis and suburban growth.

Phase 1: Laying the foundations (until 1870)

Europeans settled on the coastline of North America from the 17th century. From there they gradually penetrated the interior of the vast continent. The American colonies declared their independence from Britain in 1776 and, following their victory in the War of Independence, they became the United States of America.