In this conclusion we aim to do three things. First, we want pull together the chapters of this book into a theory of change (ToC) that can provide a new basis for the evaluation of social cohesion. Second, we want to highlight the problems with implementing this new approach as a result of the financial crisis and change of government. Finally, we want to end on an optimistic note and identify the levers that might help sustain a broader approach despite the difficulties.

We started writing this book under a Labour government that had fetishised community cohesion and we were very critical of its implicit ToC, which we viewed as dominated by a culturalist approach to policy. We argued that its theory saw those deemed to be ‘socially excluded’ as ‘the problem’ (Gough et al, 2006). It was they who had to integrate with British society, learn English, gain qualifications, raise their aspirations, shun ‘extremism’, vote, become active citizens and get a job. The problem of modern society, and especially poor urban communities, was seen to stem from people becoming isolated from the sources of help and support that would help them to help themselves. The solution therefore lay in a set of policies addressing the ‘problems’ of the socially excluded individual rather than policies that tried to make the wider society more inclusive and equitable. Such policies included: reconnecting people to their local jobcentre and motivating them to look for work; raising aspirations at school; pursuing the ‘Prevent’ agenda and new citizenship tests; bringing together the old and the young and the migrants and established populations through cultural activities; dispersing Black and minority ethnic and migrant communities; and encouraging volunteering and processes that enabled disadvantaged ‘communities’ to take greater control and responsibility for their futures.

In Chapter Three, Fuller argued that performance management regimes reinforce these social constructions, as what is measured is what is valued. While in reality people have multiple identities and networks that stretch far beyond their neighbourhood, performance management regimes have sought to identify communities where social relationships are affected by their policy solutions.