Difficulties in FL/L2 reading may also be caused by transfer effects from language processing differences. Linguistic differences between learners’ L1 and FL/L2 influence word recognition, fluency and reading comprehension. Numerous studies, e.g., Just and Carpenter (1987) or Rayner and Pollatsek (1989), have shown that FL/L2 reading may be influenced by learners’ L1 orthographic, syntactic and discourse knowledge. In this chapter, we focus on lower-level language processing, defined here as components functioning at word and sentence level.

At the beginning of the chapter, it is important to explain the terms “word recognition” and “decoding,” which are often used interchangeably. In this discussion, following Koda (2005), the term “word recognition” refers to a process that consists of two components: decoding, which involves extracting phonological information from words, and semantic access, which entails obtaining words’ meanings. Below, the interplay between the two components in L1 and FL/L2 will be discussed.

Phonological processing

2.1.1. The importance of phonological decoding in L1 reading

Research points to the significant role that this component plays in L1 reading. It seems that phonological decoding facilitates information storage in working memory. Research, e.g., Gough (1975), indicates that changing print into its phonological form enables effective access to oral vocabulary, which is stored in phonological forms. Phonological decoding was found fundamental in both alphabetic languages, e.g., English and non-alphabetic ones, such as Chinese and Japanese (e.g., Perfetti and Zhang 1995).