Contemporary Japan is an economically successful, well-educated, aging society with a high level of public safety. Recent statistics support this characterization. First, Japan accounted for 13.2% of the gross national product (GNP) of the world in fiscal 1991 (Economic Planning Agency, 1996). The unemployment rate stood at 3.3% as of 1996 (Management and Coordination Agency, 1996). Second, more than 99% of the Japanese are literate; over 95% of adolescents of both sexes are in high school, and nearly 40% of 18-year-olds are in educational institutions of higher learning, including colleges and universities (Ministry of Education, 1996). Third, the low fertility rate (an average of 1.43 per females 15–49 years old in 1995) and the longest average life expectancy of the world (82.8 years for women and 76.4 years for men in 1995) have rapidly brought about an aging society (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 1996). Fourth and finally, in 1995, there were 1,281 homicides. Arrest rates, mostly for theft, were 9.2 per 1,000 among 10-to 20-year-olds in 1995 (National Policy Agency, 1996).

Historical Review of Civic Activities and Movements

Civic and Political Movements

After opening the country to trade and commerce with the West in the 1860s, the Japanese government made movements toward adopting democratic social systems such as voting rights for citizens and establishing an elected Diet. By 1890, however, only 1% of males, those who were able to pay 15 yen or more in tax, had voting rights. Through active protests, all males over 25, but not females, won enfranchisement in 1925. The government reluctantly accepted the new democracy, but, at the same time, tried hard to develop a strong centralized bureaucratic system.