INTRODUCTION

One of the key material manifestations of the integration of the Gallic and Germanic provinces in the Roman empire was without doubt the introduction of Roman-style towns and – inextricably linked to this – the wide-spread appearance of Roman villas on the countryside from the second half of the 1st century AD onwards. There is a long tradition of research into the origin, development and social interpretation of villas. Villas by no means represent a homogeneous category, and we are able to distinguish different types on the basis of their architecture and spatial layout. When looking for the origins of this kind of settlement, archaeologists for a long time sought parallels among Italic villas, assuming them to be the models for villas in the north. In the past two decades, however, research has convincingly shown that the northern villa types were not simple replicas of Roman-Mediterranean models. Instead, they displayed a considerable individuality by incorporating local elements into their layout and architecture. This finding ties in with the general view that ‘becoming Roman’ was by no means a standard process, but involved significant variation in the ways in which individuals and groups interpreted a Roman identity in a provincial setting. Everywhere, the process of appropriating a Roman identity led to the creation of new cultural forms, which in part recalled Mediterranean traditions but which always incorporated local characteristics. We find examples of these hybrid forms not only in Gallo-Roman villa architecture, but also in temple construction, funerary monuments and the naming of deities.

These latter observations prompt new questions for villa research in the north: how should we visualise the formation process of the northern villa types? Which social groups were the key transcultural mediators in this process? And what motivated the owners to build these villas? The aim of this paper is to contribute to this discussion by analysing one specific subgroup of villas. These are the axial villas of the Anthée type (fig. 1), characterised by a double courtyard, a strong association with an elite and a relatively early starting date. We will address the following topics in this paper:

• a. the spatial layout and geographical distribution of double-courtyard villas

• b. the social interpretation of these villas

• c. the continuity between double-courtyard villas and pre-Roman rural settlements

• d. the link with urban elite houses