In the preceding chapter we traced the evolution of military organization and strategy in the jihad period. At the outset, it will be recalled, the following of the Shehu and his lieutenants constituted a community in arms rather than a professional army. Weapons, tactics, and military organization were rudimentary. There was little or no differentiation between military and civil roles: the acknowledged leaders of the scattered Muslim communities were also their military commanders. The notable exception, of course, was the Shehu himself, who preferred to remain a spiritual leader rather than a war chief.

But during the jihad and the years of consolidation that followed, the empire won by conquest presented formidable problems of administration and defense. These requirements of administration and defense, coupled with the long tradition of hierarchical state organization in Hausaland, both demanded and facilitated the establishment of elaborate governmental structures in the new emirates of the caliphate. This reconstitution and modification of traditional institutions, and the creation of new ones, also entailed a fundamental transformation of the structure of military organization. The Muslim armies grew rapidly in size and complexity, adapting especially to the increasing use of cavalry. By the mid-nineteenth century the emirates of the caliphate had developed an elaborate form of army organization that included both an offensive force structure composed of cavalry and infantry, and an advanced static defense system of central and frontier fortifications. Indeed, these impressive features would rank high on a military sophistication scale for historical preindustrial societies. In this chapter we will examine the offensive capabilities and military organization of these emirates, leaving for Chapter 4 a consideration of the defensive system of fortifications.