Introduction

While women have entered the paid labour force in significant numbers since the 1970s, they have mainly obtained part-time jobs and remain primarily responsible for unpaid care (Lewis, 2009; Boyer et al, 2017; Neitzert, 2020). Therefore, despite women's increasing participation in the paid labour market, they are still disadvantaged in social security systems and the dominant citizenship framework, as full-time paid work continues to be privileged (Lister, 2003). The predominant feminist approach to improving women's citizenship status has been to encourage women's full participation in the paid labour market (Jensen and Møberg, 2017). While there are disadvantages to this approach – for example, it may result in the continued failure to recognise the value and necessity of unpaid care – it does recognise the importance of paid work to women's economic security and independence.

Conditionality may initially appear to improve women's participation in the paid labour market; however, there are concerns that the application of conditionality to mothers exacerbates women's disadvantaged position in the paid labour market (Grover, 2007; MacLeavy, 2007; Grabham and Smith, 2010; Letablier et al, 2011; MacLeavy, 2011; Ingold and Etherington, 2013). A key concern is the lack of consideration within conditionality policies of existing gender inequalities in the paid labour market and the related gendered division of unpaid care, which can constrain and complicate women's participation in paid work (MacLeavy, 2011; Ingold and Etherington, 2013; Bennett and Daly, 2014; Davies, 2015). To investigate the conditionality within Universal Credit in light of these concerns, this chapter explores how the conditionality for lead carers within Universal Credit affects mothers’ employment trajectories in respect of whether they obtain and sustain paid work and the types of paid work they obtain. The chapter starts by outlining the participants’ paid work aspirations and barriers to paid work. The next two sections discuss, respectively, the formal childcare provision within Universal Credit and the employment-related support the participants received in obtaining paid work. The next section details the participants’ experiences of trying to meet the work-related requirements of Universal Credit. The final section discusses the effects of the conditionality within Universal Credit on the participants’ employment and earnings over time.