So far we have been concerned with two interacting influences in world society, and the policy consequences which flow from them. We saw the way in which people, individually and as groups, view themselves and each other, and the way in which prejudice, insecurity or lack of information can distort reality. This was our starting point in the study of world society on the grounds that all relationships are perceived relationships. ‘Reality’ is what we believe it to be. The behaviour of others is, effectively if not in reality, what we believe it to be. Our prejudices and misperceptions tend, for many psychological and perhaps biological reasons, to be malign and not benign – they tend to assume the worst of others, and to make us defensive of our own kith and kin.

Second, we saw the way in which social exchange ultimately leads to a differentiation of power, thus creating defensive and aggressive responses within any social organization, and especially among different national groups. These responses arise out of organizational conditions and not biological mechanisms. We have seen how societies can be aggressive by reason of environmental conditions only – there is no need to assume some built in human aggressiveness.

The predispositions to perceive inaccurately and in malign ways, and the hostility between groups that seems to be invited by social conditions, interact and feed on each other. The defensive mechanisms employed appear to confirm to all concerned the aggressive intent of others, and escalation of defence finally results in the insecurity of all. Attempts to transfer responsibility for peace and security in world society to a supra-national body are doomed to failure in a world system of independent and nuclear states.