This chapter differs in texture from those that have preceded it. It is more fine-grained. It is concerned with the textual aspects of writing – the nitty-gritty, if you like. And it analyses the handling of text in a number of examples of academic works. At one level, the chapter is a rag bag. It covers topics as disparate as:

• paragraph openings

• tone

• tables and figures

• notes

However, there is a unifying concern. Each topic relates to one problem or another that is frequently encountered in academic texts, is fairly readily fixed, and has a considerable impact on the effectiveness of a piece of writing. The chapter as a whole is intended to provide a mini-toolkit for academic authorship, especially when it comes to redrafting one's text.

Before we begin to use the kit, however, let's consider what it is we are trying to achieve in academic writing. Writers do not always agree on what constitutes good writing. Different ideals apply to different kinds of texts. Travel writing may aim to be evocative, detective fiction to be suspenseful, cook books to be practical, and so on. Fortunately, however, when it comes to academic writing, there is a reasonable degree of consensus. Most academics, whether writers or readers, would agree that academic writing should usually aim to be:

• clear

• concise

• coherent

This list is not exhaustive. An academic text may aim to be other things as well (for example, informative or original or provocative), but the above three may be treated as essential.