Introduction

This chapter examines the process of entry into the labour market for young people of differing ethnicities in three countries – the UK, France and Germany – with differing traditions, legal frameworks and understandings of citizenship. Discrimination based on ethnic origin and skin colour is a common feature of national labour markets throughout Europe and this structures the opportunities that young people have as they leave school, the choices open to them in education, employment and training, qualifications and career prospects. Discrimination against minorities within labour market structures and institutions is only just beginning to be addressed in some European countries and the consequences for young non-indigenous people are serious. Minorities – and especially young minority group members – work in the most precarious and marginalised parts of the labour market, with insecure contracts, low pay and poor conditions. As a result they are subject to relatively high rates of unemployment and poverty, yet are sometimes blamed for unemployment and are not infrequently the victims of racist abuse and violence. Efforts of governments to address the issue effectively are hampered by the lack of adequate data. Increasing hostility to refugees and asylum seekers also undermines such legislation as exists to protect minorities.

Here, we look at ways in which young people's experience as they enter the labour market is shaped by their ethnicity. We do so in the context of three different national frameworks, those of England, France and Germany, chosen because they have differing conceptualisations of citizenship, reflected in national policy arrangements.

The first section establishes that discrimination against minorities is a widespread phenomenon throughout European national labour markets, and that most national governments are doing relatively little to address it. The next, consisting of three national case studies that draw on very recent research, shows how the issues of employability, ethnicity and citizenship for young people interact in these three countries. Finally, the chapter raises important research and policy questions for these countries in particular but for the European Union as a whole.

First, we examine the way in which the term citizenship is understood within these three countries. Britain has no written political constitution and the meaning of citizenship is therefore open to political and legal interpretation.