Element contents
Experts in Government
The Deep State from Caligula to Trump and Beyond
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 18 December 2023
Summary
From Caligula and the time of ancient Rome to the present, governments have relied on experts to manage public programs. But with that expertise has come power, and that power has long proven difficult to hold accountable. The tension between experts in the bureaucracy and the policy goals of elected officials, however, remains a point of often bitter tension. President Donald Trump labeled these experts as a 'deep state' seeking to resist the policies he believed he was elected to pursue—and he developed a policy scheme to make it far easier to fire experts he deemed insufficiently loyal. The age-old battles between expertise and accountability have come to a sharp point, and resolving these tensions requires a fresh look at the rule of law to shape the role of experts in governance.
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Online ISBN: 9781009276085Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 18 January 2024
References
Anonymous (2018). “I Am Part of the Resistance inside the Trump Administration.” New York Times (September 5), www.nytimes.com/2018/09/05/opinion/trump-white-house-anonymous-resistance.html.Google Scholar
Appleby, P. H. (1949). Policy and Administration. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.Google Scholar
Arnold, P. (2007).“The Brownlow Committee, Regulation, and the Presidency: Seventy Years Later.” Public Administration Review 67:6 (November–December), 1030–1040.Google Scholar
Arthur, C. A. (1881). “First Annual Message: December 6, 1881.” Charlottesville: Miller Center, University of Virginia, https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/december-6-1881-first-annual-message.Google Scholar
Arthur, C. A. (1884). “Fourth Annual Message: December 1, 1884.” Charlottesville: Miller Center, University of Virginia, https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/december-1-1884-fourth-annual-message.Google Scholar
Ashworth, J. (2021). “Ancient Britons Adapted to Drink Milk a Millennium Earlier Than Europeans.” National History Museum (December 22), www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2021/december/britons-adapted-to-drink-milk-millennium-earlier-than-Europeans.html.Google Scholar
Water, Austin (2022a). “Austin Water Releases Investigation Report into Boil Water Notice” (March 29), www.austintexas.gov/news/austin-water-releases-investigation-report-boil-water-notice.Google Scholar
Water, Austin (2022b). “Investigation Report Summary” (March 22), https://austintexas.gov/edims/pio/document.cfm?id=379790.Google Scholar
Autullo, R. (2022). “Amid Boil Notice Fallout, Departing Director Says Austin Water Faces Staff and Culture Problems.” Austin American-Statesman (February 15), www.statesman.com/story/news/2022/02/15/city-austin-boil-water-notice-staffing-culture-issues-departing-director-says/6799190001/.Google Scholar
Baldi, D. (2010). “Il Codex Florentinus del Digesto e il ‘Fondo Pandette’ della Biblioteca Laurenziana (con un’appendice di documenti inediti).” Segno e testo 8, 99–186.Google Scholar
Barr, S. (2001). “Opinions Fly on Civil Service Job Protection and Hiring Red Tape.” Washington Post (November 5), www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2001/11/05/opinions-fly-on-civil-service-job-protection-and-hiring-red-tape/988da489-ee33-4bb5-8334-5b03b20b76bb/.Google Scholar
Barrie, J. (2018). “Royal Butler Finally Settles Tea or Milk First Debate – and Reveals Queen’s Favourite Blend.” Mirror (March 23), www.mirror.co.uk/3am/celebrity-news/royal-butler-finally-settles-tea-12238061.Google Scholar
Bendix, R. (1945). “Bureaucracy and the Problem of Power.” Public Administration Review 5:3 (summer), 194–209.Google Scholar
Berhnardt, D. L. (2023). You Report to Me: Accountability for the Failing Administrative State. New York: Encounter Books.Google Scholar
Bouckaert, G. (2012). “Trust and Public Administration.” Administration, 60:1, 91–115.Google Scholar
Brian Resnick, B. (2015). “This Is the Brain That Shot President James Garfield.” The Atlantic (October 4), www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/10/this-is-the-brain-that-shot-president-james-garfield/454212/.Google Scholar
Brownlow, L. (1958). A Passion for Anonymity: The Autobiography of Louis Brownlow. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bublé, C. (2022). “Fauci’s Farewell: His Legacy, The New Booster and Forthcoming Congressional Oversight.” GovExec (November 23), www.govexec.com/management/2022/11/faucis-farewell-legacy-booster-forthcoming-congressional-oversight/380136/.Google Scholar
Carpenter, D. P. (2001). The Forging of Bureaucratic Autonomy: Reputations, Networks, and Policy Innovation in Executive Agencies, 1862–1928. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Carter, J. (1978). “Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 Memorandum From the President” (November 8). www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/civil-service-reform-act-1978-memorandum-from-the-president.Google Scholar
Centre for Public Impact (2016). Deliverology: The Science of Delivery (April 6). www.centreforpublicimpact.org/insights/deliverology-science.Google Scholar
Chaucer, G. (1391, 2004). A Treatise on the Astrolabe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Churchill, W. (1902). “Letter, 17 November.” In Perkin, H. (2002). The Rise of Professional Society: England Since 1880. London: Routledge, 169.Google Scholar
Citizens Committee for the Hoover Report (1955). Digests and Analyses of the Nineteen Hoover Commission Reports. Washington, DC: Citizens Committee for the Hoover Report (February).Google Scholar
Coase, R. H. (1976). “Adam Smith’s View of Man.” The Journal of Law and Economics 19:3 (October), 529–546.Google Scholar
Coolican, M. (2018). No Tradesmen and No Women: The Origins of the British Civil Service. London: Biteback Publishing.Google Scholar
Cormacain, R. (2022). The Form of Legislation and the Rule of Law. Oxford: Hart Publishing.Google Scholar
Corpus Juris Civilis (1606). https://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/23623638.html.Google Scholar
Coughlan, S. (2013). “Teachers in China Given Highest Level of Public Respect.” BBC News (October 14), www.bbc.com/news/education-24381946.Google Scholar
Creel, H. G. (1964). “The Beginnings of Bureaucracy in China: The Origin of the Hsien.” Journal of Asian Studies 23:2 (February), 155–184.Google Scholar
Cullen, T. W. (1986). “Most Federal Workers Need Only Be Competent.” Wall Street Journal (May 21), 32.Google Scholar
Cunningham, E., Saich, T., and Turiel, J.. (2020). “Understanding CCP Resilience: Surveying Chinese Public Opinion through Time.” Cambridge, MA: Ash Center for Democratic Governance and Innovation, Harvard Kennedy School, https://ash.harvard.edu/publications/understanding-ccp-resilience-surveying-chinese-public-opinion-through-time.Google Scholar
D’Emdio, T., Greenberg, S., Heidenreich, K., J. Klier, J. Wagner, and Weber, T.. (2019). “The Global Case for Customer Experience in Government.” McKinsey Insights (September 10), www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-and-social-sector/our-insights/the-global-case-for-customer-experience-in-government.Google Scholar
Dean, J. (1971). “Dealing with our Political Enemies.” Confidential memorandum (August 16), https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Dean-enemies-1.jpg.Google Scholar
Demos. (2023). “A New Ethos for the Civil Service” (June 1). https://demoshelsinki.fi/civil-service/.Google Scholar
Devine, D., Kirk, D. D., and Dans, P.. (2023). “Central Personnel Agencies: Managing the Bureaucracy.” In Dans, P. and Groves, S., eds., Mandate for Leadership: The Conservative Promise. Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, 69–85.Google Scholar
Diamond, D., Lippman, D., and Cook, N.. (2020). “Trump Team Launches a Sweeping Loyalty Test to Shore Up Its Defenses.” Politico (July 20), www.politico.com/news/2020/07/15/trump-appointees-loyalty-interviews-364616.Google Scholar
Dunleavy, P. (1985). “Bureaucrats, Budgets and the Growth of the State: Reconstructing an Instrumental Model.” British Journal of Political Science, 15:3, 299–323.Google Scholar
Eggers, W. D., and Kettl, D. F.. (2023). Bridgebuilders: How Government Can Transcend Boundaries to Solve Big Problems. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Review Press.Google Scholar
Elledge, J. (2022). “Don’t Fall for Boris Johnson’s “Deep State” Conspiracy Theory.” The New Statesman (July 20), www.newstatesman.com/quickfire/2022/07/boris-johnsons-deep-state-conspiracy-theory.Google Scholar
Elman, B. A. (2009). “Civil Service Examinations.” Berkshire Encyclopedia of China: Modern and Historic Views of the World’s Newest And Oldest Global Power. Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire Publishing Group, 405–410, www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/Civil%20Service%20Examinations.pdfGoogle Scholar
Everett, E., and Welch, M.. (2023). “Let’s Think Differently about Firing Poor Performers.” PM Magazine (July 1), https://icma.org/articles/pm-magazine/lets-think-differently-about-firing-poor-performers.Google Scholar
Flavelle, C., and Bain, B.. (2017). “Bureaucrats Are Quietly Working to Undermine Trump’s Agenda.” Bloomberg (December 17), www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2017-12-18/washington-bureaucrats-are-chipping-away-at-trump-s-agenda?leadSource=uverify%20wall.Google Scholar
Foley, M. P. (2009). The Catholic Contribution to Western Law. Kirland, WA: Catholic Education Resource Center, www.catholiceducation.org/en/culture/catholic-contributions/the-catholic-contribution-to-western-law.html.Google Scholar
Freedman, A., and Samenow, J.. (2020). “NOAA Leaders Violated Agency’s Scientific Integrity Policy, Hurricane Dorian ‘Sharpiegate’ Investigation Finds.” Washington Post (June 15), www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2020/06/15/noaa-investigation-sharpiegate/.Google Scholar
Fukuyama, F. (2011). The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Google Scholar
Funk, C., Tyson, A., Pasquini, G., and Spencer, A.. (2022). “Americans Reflect on Nation’s COVID-19 Response” (July 7). Washington, DC: Pew Research Center,www.pewresearch.org/science/2022/07/07/americans-reflect-on-nations-covid-19-response/.Google Scholar
Gabriel, R. A. (2009). Thutmose III: The Military Biography of Egypt’s Greatest Warrior King. Washington, DC: Potomac Books.Google Scholar
Goodnow, F. J. (1900). Politics and Administration: A Study in Government. New York: Russell and Russell.Google Scholar
Grace Commission (US Private Sector Survey on Cost Control) (1984). Report, www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiA7ezjkqr9AhVwnGoFHRH4A2AQFnoECBYQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetacrs9044%2Fm1%2F1%2Fhigh_res_d%2FIP0281G.pdf&usg=AOvVaw35EEmzaA4h2yFi4itt2DRh.Google Scholar
Graham, L. (2022). Tweet (January 26), https://twitter.com/lindseygrahamsc/status/1486399049527869440.Google Scholar
Gulick, L. and Urwick, L.. (1937). Papers on the Science of Administration. New York: Institute of Public Administration.Google Scholar
Treasury, HM (1949). A Handbook for the New Civil Servant. London: HM Treasury, https://www.civilservant.org.uk/library/1949-HMT-A_Handbook_for_the_New_Civil_Servant.pdf.Google Scholar
Han, Y. (1946). “The Chinese Civil Service: Yesterday and Today.” Pacific Historical Review 15:2 (June), 158–170.Google Scholar
Hartmann, B. (2020. The Scribes of Rome: A Cultural and Social History of the Scribae. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Heclo, H. (1999). “OMB and Neutral Competence.” In Pfiffner, J. P., ed. The Managerial Presidency. College Station: Texas A&M University Press.Google Scholar
Hinton, H. B. (1940). “House Sustains President’s Veto of Agencies Bill.” New York Times (December 19), 1.Google Scholar
Hood, C. (1998). The Art of the State: Culture, Rhetoric, and Public Management. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Howard, P. K. (2023). Not ACCOUNTABLE: Rethinking the Constitutionality of Public Employee Unions. Garden City, NY: Rodin Books.Google Scholar
Hunt, K. (2023). “Mystery of Why Roman Buildings Have Survived So Long Has Been Unraveled, Scientists Say.” CNN Style (January 6), www.cnn.com/style/article/roman-concrete-mystery-ingredient-scn/index.html.Google Scholar
Ingraham, P. W. (2006). “Building Bridges over Troubled Waters: Merit as a Guide.” Public Administration Review 66:4 (July–August), 486–495.Google Scholar
Ingraham, P. W., and Rosenbloom, D.. (1990). The State of Merit in the Federal Government. Washington, DC: The National Commission on the Public Service.Google Scholar
Interagency Veterans Advisory Council (2021). The Status of Veterans in the Federal Workforce (November 11). Washington, DC: Interagency Veterans Advisory Council, https://cdn.govexec.com/media/gbc/docs/pdfs_edit/111021-cb1a.pdf.Google Scholar
IPSOS (2020). “More Than 1 in 3 Americans Believe a ‘deep State’ is Working to Undermine Trump.” IPSOS (December 30), www.ipsos.com/en-us/news-polls/npr-misinformation-123020.Google Scholar
Jennings, W. et Al. (2021), “How Trust, Mistrust and Distrust Shape the Governance of the COVID- 19 Crisis,” Journal of European Public Policy, 28:8, 1174–1196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2021.1942151.Google Scholar
Kamarck, E. (2013). “Lessons for the Future of Government Reform.” Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, www.brookings.edu/testimonies/lessons-for-the-future-of-government-reform/.Google Scholar
Katz, E. (2018). “The Federal Government Has Gotten Slower at Hiring New Employees for 5 Consecutive Years.” GovExec.com (March 1), www.govexec.com/management/2018/03/federal-government-has-gotten-slower-hiring-new-employees-five-consecutive-years/146348/.Google Scholar
Kellaway, L. (2013). “The Ancient Chinese Exam that Inspired Modern Job Recruitment.” BBC (July 23), https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-23376561.Google Scholar
Kennedy, B., Tyson, A., and Funk, C.. (2022). “Americans’ Trust in Scientists, Other Groups Declines.” Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, www.pewresearch.org/science/2022/02/15/americans-trust-in-scientists-other-groups-declines/Google Scholar
Kettl, D. F. (2015). “Scott Walker’s Real Legacy.” Washington Monthly (June 7), https://washingtonmonthly.com/2015/06/07/scott-walkers-real-legacy/.Google Scholar
King, L. W. (n.d.). The Code of Hammurabi. New Haven: The Avalon Project, Yale Law School, https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/hamframe.asp.Google Scholar
Lehner, U. (2015). “Catholic Theology and the Enlightenment (1670–1815).” Milwaukee: Marquette Univrersity Department of Theology, https://epublications.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1537&context=theo_fac.Google Scholar
Leich, H. H. (1953). “The Hoover Commission’s Personnel Recommendations: A Progress Report.” American Political Science Review 47:1 (March), 100–125.Google Scholar
Leung, B. (2018). “Teachers in China Are the World’s Most Respected.” China Daily (November 10), www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201811/10/WS5be62f9ea310eff303287c6d.html.Google Scholar
Lewis, D. E. (2010). The Politics of Presidential Appointments: Political Control and Bureaucratic Performance. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Li, F. (2013). Early China: A Social and Cultural History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lindsey, B. (2021). “State Capacity: What is it, How We Lost it, and How to Get it Back.” (November 18), www.niskanencenter.org/state-capacity-what-is-it-how-we-lost-it-and-how-to-get-it-back/.Google Scholar
Lowe, R. (2011). The Official History of the British Civil Service, Reforming the Civil Service, vol. 1, The Fulton Years 1966-81. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Macpherson, C. B. (1962). The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Madison, J. (1789). “Removal Power of the President” (June 17), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-12-02-0143.Google Scholar
Mann, T. E., and Ornstein, N. J.. (2006). The Broken Branch: How Congress Is Failing America and How to Get It Back on Track. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mann, T. E., and Ornstein, N. J.. (2012). It’s Even Worse Than It Looks: How the American Constitutional System Collided with the New Politics of Extremism. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Markmanellis (2017). “‘Milk in First’: A Miffy Question” (History of Tea Project at Queen Mary University of London, May 11), https://qmhistoryoftea.wordpress.com/2017/05/11/milk-in-first-a-miffy-question/.Google Scholar
Matthews, K. D. (1970). “Roman Aqueducts: Technical Aspects of Their Construction.” Penn Museum: Expedition, 13:1, www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/roman-aqueducts/#:~:text=With%20an%20average%20gradient%20of,the%20hilltops%20of%20the%20city.Google Scholar
McGlinchy, A. (2022). “Here’s What We Know about What Caused Last Week’s Boil-Water Notice in Austin.” KUT.org (February 15), www.kut.org/austin/2022-02-15/heres-what-we-know-about-what-caused-last-weeks-boil-water-notice-in-austin.Google Scholar
McSweeney, T. J., and Spike, M. K.. (2015). The Significance of the Corpus Juris Civilis: Matilda of Canossa and the Revival of Roman Law. Williamsburg, VA: College of William and Mary Law School.Google Scholar
Millard, C. (2011). Destiny of the Republic: A Tale of Madness, Medicine, and the Murder of a President. New York: Anchor Books.Google Scholar
Montjoy, R. S., and Watson, D. J.. (1995). “A Case for Reinterpreted Dichotomy of Politics and Administration as a Professional Standard in Council-Manager Government.” Public Administration Review 55:3 (May/June), 231.Google Scholar
Mosher, F. C. (1968). Democracy and the Public Service. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
National Academy of Public Administration (2017). No Time to Wait: Building a Public Service for the 21st Century. (July). Washington, DC: National Academy of Public Administration, https://napawash.org/academy-studies/no-time-to-wait-part-2-building-a-public-service-for-the-21st-century.Google Scholar
Naval (2021). Tweet (August 14), https://twitter.com/naval/status/1426745940577198082.Google Scholar
Niskanen, W. A. (1971). Bureaucracy and Representative Goernment. Chicago: Aldine, Atherton.Google Scholar
“Nixon’s Revolutionary Vision for American Governance” (2017). Nixon Today (January 24), www.nixonfoundation.org/2017/01/nixons-vision-for-american-governance/.Google Scholar
Northcote, S. H., and Trevelyan, C. E.. (1854). Report on the Organisation of the Permanent Civil Service. London: Presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty, www.civilservant.org.uk%2Flibrary%2F1854_Northcote_Trevelyan_Report.pdfC.Google Scholar
Norton E. Long, N. E. (1954). “Public Policy and Administration: The Goals of Rationality and Responsibility.” Public Administration Review 14:1 (Winter), 22.Google Scholar
NPR. (2010). “Who Oversees Homeland Security? Um, Who Doesn’t?” (July 20), www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128642876.Google Scholar
Oliveira, E., Abner, G., Lee, S., Suzuki, K., Hur, H., and Perry, J. L.. (2023). “What Does the Evidence Tell Us about Merit Principles and Government Performance?” Public Administration, 1–23.Google Scholar
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2022). “Trust in Government.” www.oecd.org/governance/trust-in-government.Google Scholar
Peng, P. (2018). “War, Bureaucracy, and State Capacity: Evidence from Imperial China.” Durham, NC: Duke University, https://sites.duke.edu/statecapacity/files/2019/04/Peng-2019-War-Bureaucracy-State-Capacity-in-China.pdf.Google Scholar
Performance.gov. (2023). “President’s Management Agenda: Strengthening and Empowering the Federal Workforce,” www.performance.gov/pma/workforce/.Google Scholar
Portillo, S., Humphrey, N., and Bearfield, D.. (2022). The Myth of Bureaucratic Neutrality: An Examination of Merit and Representation. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
President’s Committee on Administrative Management (1937). Report of the President’s Committee: Administrative Management in the Government of the United States. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015030482726&view=1up&seq=4.Google Scholar
Pressman, J. L., and Wildavsky, A.. (1973) How Great Expectations in Washington Are Dashed in Oakland; Or, Why It’s Amazing that Federal Programs Work at All, This Being a Saga of the Economic Development Administration as Told by Two Sympathetic Observers Who Seek to Build Morals on a Foundation of Ruined Hopes. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Provis, C. (2019). “Confucianism, Virtue, and Wisdom.” In Sison, A. J. G., Beabout, G. R., and Ferrero, I., eds., Handbook of Virtue Ethics in Business and Management. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 425–434.Google Scholar
Rauch, J. D. (1995). Demosclerosis: The Silent Killer of American Government. New York: Three Rivers Press.Google Scholar
Reagan, R. (1986). “News Conference” (August 12). Simi Valley, CA: Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation and Institute, www.reaganfoundation.org/ronald-reagan/reagan-quotes-speeches/news-conference-1/.Google Scholar
Report of the Proceedings in the Case of the United States vs. Charles J. Guiteau, Tried in the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, Holding a Criminal Term, and Beginning November 14, 1881, Part II. (1882). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Roberts, A. (1996). “Why the Brownlow Committee Failed: Neutrality and Partisanship in the Early Years of Public Administration.” Administration and Society 28:1, 3–38.Google Scholar
Roberts, J. M. (2019). “Brazil’s Bolsonaro Should Follow Trump’s Lead and Slash Regulations.” Heritage Foundation (November 26), www.heritage.org/international-economies/commentary/brazils-bolsonaro-should-follow-trumps-lead-and-slash.Google Scholar
Rucker, P., and Costa, R.. (2017). “Bannon Vows a Daily Fight for ‘Deconstruction of the Administrative State.’” Washington Post (February 23), www.washingtonpost.com/politics/top-wh-strategist-vows-a-daily-fight-for-deconstruction-of-the-administrative-state/2017/02/23/03f6b8da-f9ea-11e6-bf01-d47f8cf9b643_story.html.Google Scholar
Ryan, A. (1962). “Locke and the Dictatorship of the Bourgeoisie.” Political Studies, 13(2): 219–230.Google Scholar
Sandoval, E., and Goodman, J. D.. (2022). “‘Errors’ at Treatment Plant Force 1 Million in Austin to Boil Their Water.” New York Times (February 7), www.nytimes.com/2022/02/07/us/austin-boil-water.html.Google Scholar
Schwartz, I. (2017). “Spicer On Deep State: No Question Officials From Last 8 Years Would Seek To Continue Obama Agenda.” RealClear Politics (March 11), www.realclearpolitics.com/video/2017/03/11/spicer_on_deep_state_no_question_officials_from_last_8_years_would_seek_to_continue_obama_agenda.html.Google Scholar
Sherk, J. (2017). “Proposed Labor Reforms.” https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/6948593/Sherk-White-House-document.pdf.Google Scholar
Sherk, J. (2022). “Tales From the Swamp: How Federal Bureaucrats Resisted President Trump.” America First Policy Institute (February 1), https://americafirstpolicy.com/latest/20222702-federal-bureaucrats-resisted-president-trump.Google Scholar
Sherk, J. (2022a). “Deeply Partisan Federal Bureaucrats Selectively Enforce The Laws, Eliminating Equal Justice For All.” The Federalist (March 30), https://thefederalist.com/2022/03/30/deeply-partisan-federal-bureaucrats-selectively-enforce-the-laws-eliminating-equal-justice-for-all/.Google Scholar
Sherk, J. (2022b). “The President Needs the Power to Fire Bureaucrats.” Wall Street Journal (August 9), www.wsj.com/articles/the-power-to-fire-insubordinate-bureaucrats-schedule-f-executive-order-trump-deborah-birx-at-will-civil-service-removal-appeals-11659989383.Google Scholar
Sherk, J. (2023). “Forum on Schedule F and the Future of the Public Service.” (Jun2 29). Washington: National Academy of Public Administration,www.youtube.com/watch?v=wSUY9ito9TMGoogle Scholar
Simmons, A. J. (1992). The Lockean Theory of Rights. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Singhvi, A. M. (2014). “An End to the Spoils System.” The Times of India (July 4), https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/candid-corner/an-end-to-the-spoils-system/.Google Scholar
Smith, A. (1776). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. London: W. Strahan.Google Scholar
Society for Human Resource Management and Willis Towers Watson (2020). The Future Chief People Officer: Imagine. Invent. Ignite. Why Empowered HR Leaders Are Key to Capturing Growth in the New World of Work, www.shrm.org/hr-today/trends-and-forecasting/research-and-surveys/documents/future%20chief%20people%20officer-imagine.%20invent.%20ignite.%20final.pdf.Google Scholar
Stanley, M. (n.d.). “Civil Service History.” www.civilservant.org.uk/misc-history.html.Google Scholar
Stephen Skowronek, S. (1982). Building A New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Svara, J. H. (1985). “Dichotomy and Duality: Reconceptualizing the Relationship between Policy and Administration in Council-Manager Cities.” Public Administration Review, 45 (January/February), 221–232.Google Scholar
Tuckness, A. (2020). “Locke’s Political Philosophy.” In E. N. Zala, ed., The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/locke-political/.Google Scholar
Tully, J. (1980). A Discourse on Property: John Locke and His Adversaries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
UK Tea and Infusions Association (2023). “Frequently Asked Questions about Tea.” www.tea.co.uk/tea-faqs.Google Scholar
US Bureau of Labor Statistics (2023). “Union Members – 2022” (January 19), www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htm.Google Scholar
September 6, 2019, Statement About Hurricane Dorian Forecasts, Final Report No. OIG-20-032-I (June 26), www.oig.doc.gov/OIGPublications/OIG-20-032-I.pdf.Google Scholar
US Executive Office of the President (2021). “Fact Sheet: Executive Order Establishing the White House Task Force on Worker Organizing and Empowerment” (April 26), www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/04/26/fact-sheet-executive-order-establishing-the-white-house-task-force-on-worker-organizing-and-empowerment/.Google Scholar
US Government Accountability Office (2016). Federal Hiring: OPM Needs to Improve Management and Oversight of Hiring Authorities, GAO-16-521 (September 1), www.gao.gov/products/gao-16-521.Google Scholar
US Government Accountability Office (2020a). Veteran Federal Employment: OPM and Agencies Could Better Leverage Data to Help Improve Veteran Retention Rates, GAO-20-592. (July 22), www.gao.gov/products/gao-20-592.Google Scholar
US Government Accountability Office (2020b). DHS Service Contracts: Increased Oversight Needed to Reduce the Risk Associated with Contractors Performing Certain Functions, GAO-20-417 (May 7), www.gao.gov/products/gao-20-417.Google Scholar
US Merit Systems Protection Board (2020). The Merit System Principles: Keys to Managing the Federal Workforce, www.mspb.gov/studies/studies/The_Merit_System_Principles_Keys_to_Managing_the_Federal_Workforce_1371890.pdf.Google Scholar
US Office of Personnel Management (2003). Biography of an Ideal: A History of the Federal Civil Service. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
US Office of Personnel Management (2022). Employment of Veterans in the Federal Executive Branch: Fiscal Year 2020 (May). www.fedshirevets.gov/veterans-council/veteran-employment-data/employment-of-veterans-in-the-federal-executive-branch-fy2020.pdf.Google Scholar
US Office of Personnel Management (n.d.). “Policy, Data, Oversight: Veterans Services,” www.opm.gov/policy-data-oversight/veterans-services/vet-guide-for-hr-professionals/Google Scholar
Van Riper, P. P. (1958). History of the United States Civil Service. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.Google Scholar
Viner, J. (1927). “Adam Smith and Laissez-faire.” The Journal of Political Economy. 35:2 (April), 198–232.Google Scholar
Voltaire (1764). Voltaire’s Philosophical Dictionary, www.gutenberg.org/files/18569/18569-h/18569-h.htm.Google Scholar
Wagner, E. (2020). “As White House Steps Up Schedule F Implementation, ‘Lawmakers Don’t Get It.’” GovExec (December 14), www.govexec.com/management/2020/12/white-house-steps-schedule-f-implementation-lawmakers-dont-get-it/170722/.Google Scholar
Wakefield, D. (1961). “William F. Buckley, Jr.: Portrait of a Complainer.” Esquire (January), 50.Google Scholar
Waldo, D. (1948). The Administrative State: A Study of the Political Theory of American Public Administration. New York: Ronald Press. 65.Google Scholar
Waldo, D. (1984). “The Perdurability of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy: Woodrow Wilson and the Identity Crisis in Public Administration.” In Rabin, J. and Bowman, J. S., eds., Politics and Administration. New York: Marcel Dekker, 219–233.Google Scholar
Water Science School (2018). “Aqueducts Moe Water In the Past and Today.” Washington: US Geological Survey (June 5), www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/aqueducts-move-water-past-and-today.Google Scholar
Weber, M. (1947). The Theory of Social and Economic Organizations. London: Free Press of Glencoe, Collier-Macmillan.Google Scholar
Wei, J. C., and Winroth, A.. (2022). Medieval Canon Law: Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-medieval-canon-law/medieval-canon-law-introduction/B5DD73317FF615F2E6D98F5AA938F35A.Google Scholar
White House (2020). “Andrew Jackson.” https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/presidents/andrewjackson.Google Scholar
Wildavsky, A. (2018). The Art and Craft of Policy Analysis, ed. Peters, B.G.. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Wilson, W. (1887). “The Study of Administration.” Political Science Quarterly 2:2 (June), 187–222.Google Scholar
Worth, R. F. (2017). A Rage for Order: The Middle East in Turmoil, From Tahir Square to Isis. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Google Scholar
Wu, C., and Wilkes, R.. (2018). “Local-National Political Trust Patterns: Why China Is an Exception.” International Political Science Review, 39:4, 436–454.Google Scholar
Wyld, D. C. (2022). The Age of Remote Work: How COVID-19 Transformed Organizations in Real Time. Washington, DC: IBM Center for the Business of Government, www.businessofgovernment.org/sites/default/files/How%20COVID-19%20Transformed%20Organizations%20in%20Real%20Time_0.pdf.Google Scholar
Yang, S. (2016). “Exploring Wisdom in the Confucian Tradition: Wisdom as Manifested by Fan Zhongyan.” New Ideas in Psychology 41, 1–7.Google Scholar
Zhou, X. (2021). Chinese Bureaucracy through Three Lenses: Weberian, Confucian, and Marchian. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Zimmerman, M. (2020). “QAnon’s Rise in Japan Shows the Conspiracy Theory’s Global Spread,” The Print (November 30), https://theprint.in/world/qanons-rise-in-japan-shows-the-conspiracy-theorys-global-spread/554698/Google Scholar