The intellectual roots of the schism between neurology and psychiatry are discussed. The opposition between the 19th century academic neuropsychiatry and the alienistic psychiatry is discussed. The evolution of aphasiology is discussed as a paradigm of neuropsychiatry.

This review gives information on selection criteria for the psychopharmacological treatment of psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents, and offers practical instructions for the use of these drugs. Unless mentioned otherwise, the data on effectiveness and safety have been based on controlled trials. In addition, advices are given with respect to drugs that have proved to be effective and safe in adult psychiatric patients but have not yet been investigated sufficiently in children and adolescents.

In this second part the origins of Freudian psychoanalysis in neuropsychiatry is discussed, but also its ties with the pre-scientific ‘Naturphilosophie’. The alienistic psychiatry was deeply influenced by psychodynamic theories.

Biological psychiatry has more intellectual ties with psychodynamic psychiatry than with the old academic neuropsychiatry. Behavioral neurology is to be considered as a revival of the old academic neuropsychiatry.

In this review the naturally occurring β-carbolines norharman and harman in human beings and mammals will be discussed. These β-carbolines have been recognized as aromatic alkaloids, which can be detected in very low concentrations in human plasma. Norharman and especially harman display moderate affinity to the benzodiazepine receptor. The biosynthesis of these compounds in vivo, the localization, the biological effects and the probable involvement of these compounds in the cause of psychopathologic states will be discussed. This with a special focus on alcoholism, heroin addiction, psychosis and anxiety disorders. In some of these clinical pictures the concentration of norharman is increased. Whether this is a causality or a matter of minor importance is still unknown.

Gedurende de laatste jaren zijn nieuwe edities van twee grote classificatiesystemen uitgebracht. De American Psychiatric Association heeft in 1994 de vierde editie van de Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) gepubliceerd en de Wereldgezondheids-organisatie in 1991 de tiende editie van de International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10). Van de laatste is hier het vijfde hoofdstuk (V of F) over psychische stoornissen van belang.

Vergeleken met de DSM-III (-R) uit 1980 (1987) is de DSM-IV qua structuur niet veranderd. Vergeleken met de DSM-III-R zijn er wel quantitatieve verschillen: 105 veranderde categorieën op as-I, 3 veranderde op as-II, 9 nieuwe voorstellen voor klinische aandacht, 13 nieuwe diagnoses, terwijl 8 classificaties verwijderd zijn en as-IV anders is gestructureerd, naar type belasting in plaats van ernst van belastende factoren.

People with Parkinson's disease often suffer from depressions. Treatment of these depressions requires the use of antidepressants. The advanced age of most patients, however, can put limitations on the range of suitable antidepressants. Moreover, the drug should not aggravate Parkinson's disease. Many patients suffering from Parkinson's disease are currently prescribed selegiline. This drug is commonly considered to be a contraindication for antidepressants.

In this article, criteria for the choice of a suitable psychofarmacon are discussed. In particular suggestions are offered for the treatment of patients who are already taking selegiline.

In this second part of a review on drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease, the characteristics of typical and atypical neuroleptics will be compared and the therapeutic efficacy and the extrapyramidal side-effects of ‘atypical’ antipsychotic drugs will be discussed. These drugs affect serotonergic, adrenergic as well as dopaminergic neurotransmission and are best distinguished from the typical neuroleptics on the basis of the relationship between strong 5-HT2 and weak D2 affinities. Their succes may rely on this spectrum of effects. Clozapine, being the first choice, will be discussed in more detail.

The purpose of this article is to give a comprehensive review of biological theories about the development of panic disorder.

Noradrenergic, serotonergic and GABA-ergic models of panic disorder are discussed, together with the role of peptides and neuroanatomical hypotheses.

The conclusion is that there is no unitary biological explanation of panic disorder.

An intergrative bio-psycho-social model seems for the moment the most usefull.

A survey of the history of psychopharmacotherapy is presented.

In Antiquity some psycho-active plant extracts were already known . Since the rise of chemistry in early nineteenth century, sedative drugs were synthesized first. Since the fifties of this century the four groups of psychotherapeutic drugs proper, anxiolytics, hypnotics, antipsychotics and antidepressants have been discovered.

Astute clinical or preclinical observation and the understanding of coincidences, serendipity, has been the basis of these discoveries. Since the prototypes were discovered, no real breakthroughs have been achieved.

In this first part of a review on drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease, the etiology, the clinical features and the therapeutic strategies will be discussed. The drugs used in the therapy of Parkinson's disease may lead to non-motor complications, such as delirium or hallucinations. Especially anti-cholinergics, respectivily dopaminometics, play an important role. Lowering the dose or even discontinuing the medication is the main therapeutic measure. The use of an atypical antipsychotic drug (clozapine) may be indicated.