Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-18T18:01:31.119Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

‘THE NIGHT WAR OF NAMPULA’: VULNERABLE CHILDREN, SOCIAL CHANGE AND SPIRITUAL INSECURITY IN NORTHERN MOZAMBIQUE

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 July 2016

Abstract

People living in the neighbourhoods of Nampula city, northern Mozambique, often speak of a war that is being waged at night, during which sick infants and small children figure more and more frequently as the preferred prey of malevolent ancestors, witches and new malign spirits that come at night, and who abduct and enslave them in order to harm their families. The purpose of this article is to explore what this ‘war of the night’ reveals, to understand why it is that mothers are afraid their babies and children will be stolen from the compound and, finally, to analyse the ways in which families handle their fears and apprehensions about a child's sickness. I begin this analysis of the ‘war of the night’, and the accompanying anxieties surrounding infants and children, by examining it in relation to large-scale changes that have occurred both at the micro-level of the household and in the community more generally. Specifically, the article looks at the ways in which ongoing economic and social transformations are reconfiguring gender and generational relationships, which, in turn, generates more insecurity within the household and intensifies a sense of existential threat from external forces. The article then examines the cultural logic of rumours and beliefs involving children, as a consideration of local interpretations and experiences of infancy and childhood helps shed light on local concepts of (children's) vulnerability. With the aid of three case studies, the article charts how families manage children's diseases. It shows how the uncertainty surrounding an illness is not always ameliorated by divinations or by the healing provided by women working on behalf of ancestral power. Instead, women healers often crystallize and intensify mothers’ fears, also because their medical and ritual interventions are not always effective. The article concludes by examining the reasons why these women healers are increasingly struggling to manage the evil forces haunting infants and children and to make their medical interventions effective, and the effect of this on their local authority.

Résumé

Les habitants des quartiers de la ville de Nampula, dans le Nord du Mozambique, parlent souvent d'une guerre menée de nuit, dans laquelle les nourrissons et les jeunes enfants malades sont de plus en plus souvent les proies préférées d'ancêtres malveillants, de sorcières et de mauvais esprits qui viennent la nuit pour les enlever et les asservir pour nuire à leurs familles. Cet article a pour objet d'explorer ce que révèle cette « guerre de nuit », de comprendre pourquoi les mères craignent que leurs bébés et leurs enfants soient volés chez eux et, enfin, d'analyser comment les familles gèrent leurs craintes et leurs appréhensions face à la maladie d'un enfant. L'auteur commence cette analyse de la « guerre de nuit », et des anxiétés qui l'accompagnent concernant les nourrissons et les enfants, en l'examinant dans le contexte des changements à large échelle survenus au niveau restreint du foyer et au niveau de la communauté plus généralement. L'article étudie en particulier la manière dont les transformations économiques et sociales en cours reconfigurent les relations entre les sexes et les générations, ce qui, à son tour, génère plus d'insécurité au sein du foyer et intensifie un sentiment de menace existentielle de la part de forces extérieures. L'article examine ensuite la logique culturelle des rumeurs et des croyances concernant les enfants, estimant que la prise en compte des interprétations locales et des expériences de la petite et jeune enfance aide à apporter des éclairages sur les concepts locaux de vulnérabilité (des enfants). À l'aide de trois études de cas, l'article décrit comment les familles gèrent les maladies des enfants. Il montre comment l'incertitude qui entoure une maladie n'est pas toujours améliorée par des divinations ou par des soins apportés par des femmes agissant au nom d'un pouvoir ancestral. Au contraire, les guérisseuses cristallisent et intensifient souvent les craintes des mères, aussi parce que leurs interventions médicales et rituelles ne sont pas toujours efficaces. L'article conclut en examinant les raisons pour lesquelles ces guérisseuses ont de plus en plus de mal à gérer les forces du mal qui hantent les nourrissons et les enfants et à rendre leurs interventions médicales efficaces, et l'effet que ceci a sur leur autorité locale.

Type
Contesting Space and Selfhood
Copyright
Copyright © International African Institute 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Ali, R. (2010) ‘Níveis e tendências da desigualdade económica e do desenvolvimento humano em Moçambique: 1996–2006’ in de Brito, L., Castel-Branco, C. N., Chichava, S. and Francisco, A. (eds) Pobreza, Desigualdade e Vulnerabilidade em Moçambique. Maputo: Instituto de Estudos Sociais e Económicos (IESE).Google Scholar
Alpers, E. (1983) ‘The story of Swema: female vulnerability in 19th century East Africa’ in Robertson, C. C. and Klein, M. A. (eds) Women and Slavery in Africa. Madison WI: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Alpers, E. (2013) ‘Debts, pawnship and slavery in nineteenth-century East Africa’ in Campbell, G. and Stanziani, A. (eds) Bonded Labour and Debt in the Indian Ocean. London: Chatto & Pickering.Google Scholar
Araújo, M. M. (2005) ‘Cidade de Nampula: a rainha do norte de Moçambique’, Fininstessa XL: 209–22.Google Scholar
Archambault, J. S. (2013) ‘Cruising through uncertainty: cell phones and the politics of display and disguise in Inhambane, Mozambique’, American Ethnologist 40 (1): 88101.Google Scholar
Argenti, N. (2001) ‘Kesum-body and the places of the gods: the politics of children's masking and second-world realities in Oku (Cameroon)’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 7 (1): 6794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnfred, S. (2011) Sexuality and Gender Politics in Mozambique: rethinking gender in Africa. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Ashforth, A. (1998) ‘Reflections on spiritual insecurity in a modern African city (Soweto)’, African Source Review 41 (3): 3967.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashforth, A. (2005) Witchcraft, Violence, and Democracy in South Africa. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Ashforth, A. (2011) ‘AIDS, religious enthusiasm and spiritual insecurity in Africa’, Global Public Health 6 (S2): 132–47.Google Scholar
Brain, R. (1970) ‘Child-witches’ in Douglas, M. (ed.) Witchcraft, Confession and Accusations. London: Tavistock.Google Scholar
Capela, J. and Medeiros, E. (1987) O Tráfico de Escravos em Moçambique para as Ilhas do Indico, 1720–1902. Maputo: Núcleo Editorial da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane.Google Scholar
Castel-Branco, C. N. (2014) ‘Growth, capital accumulation and economic porosity in Mozambique: social losses, private gains’, Review of African Political Economy 41 (S1): 2648.Google Scholar
Ciscato, E. (2012) Introdução à Cultura da Àrea Makhuwa/Lomwe. Porto: Fundação Ais.Google Scholar
Colson, E. (2000) ‘The father as witch’, Africa 70 (3): 333–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Comaroff, J. (1997) ‘Consuming passions: nightmares of the global village’, Culture 17 (1–2): 719.Google Scholar
De Boeck, F. (2005) ‘The divine seed: children, gifts and witchcraft in the Democratic Republic of Congo’ in Honwana, A. and De Boeck, F. (eds) Markers and Breakers: children and youth in postcolonial Africa. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
De Boeck, F. (2009) ‘At risk, as risk: abandonment and care in a world of spiritual insecurity’ in La Fontaine, J. (ed.) The Devil's Children. From spirit possession to witchcraft: new allegations that affect children. Farnham: Ashgate.Google Scholar
de Brito, L., Castel-Branco, C. N., Chichava, S. and Francisco, A. (2010) Pobreza, Desigualdade e Vulnerabilidade em Moçambique. Maputo: Instituto de Estudos Sociais e Económicos (IESE).Google Scholar
Diduk, S. (1993) ‘Ancestors and socio-economic change in Kedjom society’, Man 28 (3): 551–71.Google Scholar
Durham, D. (2004) ‘Disappearing youth: youth as a social shifter in Botswana’, American Ethnologist 31 (4): 589605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1937) Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Farge, A. and Revel, J. (1991) The Vanishing Children of Paris: rumor and politics before the French revolution. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Fox, L., Manuel Benfica, R., Ehrenpreis, M., Gaal, M. S., Nordang, H. and Owen, D. (2008) Beating the Odds: sustaining inclusion in Mozambique's growing economy. Washington DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Fry, P. (2000) ‘Cultures of difference: the aftermath of Portuguese and British colonial policies in southern Africa’, Social Anthropology 8 (2): 117–43.Google Scholar
Geffray, C. (2000) Nem Pai nem Mãe. Critica de Parentesco: O caso Macua. Lisbon: Editorial Ndjira.Google Scholar
Geschiere, P. (1997) The Modernity of Witchcraft: politics and the occult in postcolonial Africa. Charlottesville VA: University Press of Virginia.Google Scholar
Ginzburg, C. (1991) Ecstasies: deciphering the witches’ sabbath. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Gottlieb, A. (1998) ‘Do infants have religion? The spiritual lives of Beng babies’, American Anthropologist 100 (1): 122–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottlieb, A. (2004) The Afterlife Is Where We Come From: the culture of infancy in West Africa. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Hanlon, J. (2010) ‘Mozambique: the war ended 17 years ago, but we are still poor’, Conflict, Security and Development 10 (1): 77102.Google Scholar
Heald, S. (1991) ‘Divinatory failure: the religious and social failure of Gisu diviners’, Africa 61 (3): 299317.Google Scholar
Honwana, A. (1996) ‘Spiritual agency and self-renewal in southern Mozambique’. PhD thesis, SOAS, University of London.Google Scholar
Honwana, A. (2006) Child Soldiers in Africa. Philadelphia PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
IMF (2013) Regional Economic Outlook: sub-Saharan Africa. Washington DC: International Monetary Fund (IMF).Google Scholar
Israel, P. (2009) ‘The war of lions: witch-hunt, occult idiom and post-socialism in northern Mozambique’, Journal of Southern African Studies 34 (1): 155–74.Google Scholar
La Fontaine, J. (1963) ‘Witchcraft in Bugisu’ in Middleton, J. and Winter, E. H. (eds) Witchcraft and Sorcery in East Africa. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
La Fontaine, J. (2009) The Devil's Children. From spirit possession to witchcraft: new allegations that affect children. Farnham: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Leis, N. B. (1982) ‘The not-so-supernatural power of Ijaw children’ in Ottenberg, S. (ed.) African Religious Groups and Beliefs. Cupertino CA: Folklore Institute.Google Scholar
Macaire, P. (1996) L'héritage Makhuwa au Mozambique. Paris: L'Harmattan.Google Scholar
Martinez, L. F. (1989) O Povo Macua e a sua Cultura. Lisbon: Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical.Google Scholar
McIntosh, J. (2004) ‘Reluctant Muslims: embodied hegemony and moral resistance in a Giriama spirit possession complex’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 10: 91112.Google Scholar
McIntosh, J. (2009) The Edge of Islam: power, personhood, and ethnoreligious boundaries on the Kenya coast. Durham NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Medeiros, E. (1988) As Etapas da Escravatura no Norte de Moçambique. Maputo: Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique.Google Scholar
Molina, J. A. (2006) The Invention of Child Witches in the Democratic Republic of Congo. London: Save the Children.Google Scholar
Nordstrom, C. (1997) A Different Kind of War Story. Philadelphia PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Parkin, D. (1970) ‘Politics of ritual syncretism: Islam among the non-Muslim Giriama of Kenya’, Africa 40 (3): 217–33.Google Scholar
Pereira, L. N. (2011) ‘Families, churches, the state, and the child witch in Angola’ in Nicolau Parés, L. and Sansi, R. (eds) Sorcery in the Black Atlantic. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Pfeiffer, M. (2002) ‘African independent churches in Mozambique: healing the afflictions of inequality’, Medical Anthropology 16 (2): 176–99.Google Scholar
Reynolds, P. (1996) Traditional Healers and Childhood in Zimbabwe. Athens OH: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Sargent, C. and Scheper-Hughes, N. (eds) (1998) Small Wars: the cultural politics of childhood. Berkeley CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Serra, C. (2003) Cólera e Catarse. Maputo: Imprensa Universitária, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane.Google Scholar
Sumich, J. (2010) ‘Does all that is solid melt into air?: Questioning “neo-liberal” occult economies in Mozambique’, Kronos 36: 157–72.Google Scholar
Thompson, C. B. (1999) ‘Beyond civil society: child soldiers as citizens in Mozambique’, Review of African Political Economy 26 (80): 191206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trentini, D. (forthcoming) ‘Muslims of the mosque, Muslims of the spirits: performing contested ideas of being Muslim in northern Mozambique’, Journal for Islamic Studies 35.Google Scholar
UNDP (2007) Mozambique: national human development report 2007. Challenges and opportunities: the response to HIV and AIDS. Maputo: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) <http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/nhdr_2007_hiv_aids_mozambique.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Unicef (2006) Childhood Poverty in Mozambique: a situation and trends analysis. Maputo: UnicefGoogle Scholar
Unicef (2014) Situação das crianças em Moçambique 2014. Maputo: Unicef.Google Scholar
Waterhouse, R. (2010) ‘Vulnerabilidade em Moçambique: padrões, tendências e respostas’ in de Brito, L., Castel-Branco, C. N., Chichava, S. and Francisco, A. (eds) Pobreza, Desigualdade e Vulnerabilidade em Moçambique. Maputo: Instituto de Estudos Sociais e Económicos (IESE).Google Scholar
West, H. G. (2005) Kupilikula: governance and the invisible realm in Mozambique. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
White, H. (2013) ‘Spirit and society: in defence of a critical anthropology of religious life’, Anthropology Southern Africa 36 (3&4): 139–45.Google Scholar
White, L. (1997) ‘The traffic in heads: bodies, borders and the articulation of regional histories’, Journal of Southern African Studies 23 (2): 325–38.Google Scholar
Whyte, S. R. (1990) ‘Uncertain persons in Nyole divination’, Journal of Religion in Africa 20 (1): 4162.Google Scholar
Whyte, S. R. (1997) Questioning Misfortune: the pragmatics of uncertainty in eastern Uganda. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Whyte, S. R. (2002) ‘Subjectivity and subjunctivity: hoping for health in eastern Uganda’ in Werbner, R. (ed.) Postcolonial Subjectivities in Africa. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar