Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-12T21:10:49.336Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Little Tin Gods: The District Officer in British East Africa

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 July 2014

Michael Thomason
Get access

Extract

They were unlikely choices for revolutionaries and hardly the haughty autocrats the phrase “Little Tin Gods” conjures up. Yet many East African district officers felt it their duty to change the lives of the Africans they ruled, and against great odds they did. Sent out by their superiors in London and Nairobi as policemen and tax collectors, they saw themselves as secular missionaries for a superior culture. Working in the decade before the catastrophic first world war, they were the last generation of Europeans who easily believed their own superiority. Under pressure to produce revenue many district commissioners fostered economic development as a first step in reforming African society. They wished to develop an exchange economy based upon the fruits of a settled and productive peasantry working on its own land. They believed the Africans would adopt the basic values of hard work and even self-reliance, making an Edwardian revolution. If their assumptions about social change, economics, or even civilization itself seem unsophisticated, it is because they were amateurs. They had few resources beyond their own confidence and sense of mission. They began a revolution, but it was not the one they intended for they failed to retrieve colonial Kenya from the clutches of a handful of white settlers. Their vision of peaceful prosperity for the Africans was ultimately denied, and the hopes they raised became murderous frustrations. They offered Kenya an alternative course which imperialism could not accept.

Kenya's first district officers came from diverse backgrounds, but most shared the middle class values they proposed for the Africans.

Type
Research Article
Information
Albion , Volume 7 , Issue 2 , Summer 1975 , pp. 145 - 160
Copyright
Copyright © North American Conference on British Studies 1975

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 For the sake of clarity this essay will refer to the East Africa Protectorate as Kenya or the protectorate. Also, to reduce repetition the terms “district officer” and “district official” will he used interchangeably with their official title, “district commissioner.” Before 1905 these men were styled “collectors.” reflecting the importance of their tax collection duties. Finally the term “Nairobi” is shorthand for the colonial secretariat and other central offices of the colonial government located there.

2 A district commissioner was paid £100, and assistant district commissioner £250. The governor received £2,000. Blue Book for the East Africa Protectorate, 1905-06, pp. 13-14. CO. 543.6. Public Records Office, London (hereafter cited as P.R.O.). Before World War I many of the district officers in the protectorate were holdovers from the I.B.E.A., and not of the same social class as their counterparts in West Africa. Under pressure from the settlers and the Colonial Office the class background gradually rose with the arrival of new appointees.

3 John Ainsworth. East Africa Kenya Remininscences, unpublished MSS., MSS. Afr. S. 380. Rhodes House. Oxford (hereafter cited as R.H.). See also the modest effort of Goldsmith, E.W., John Ainsworth, Pioneer Kenya Administrator 1864-1946 (London, 1955).Google Scholar

4 Dundas, Charles. African Crossroads (London. 1955)Google Scholar. John Ainsworth Memorandum on hast Africa Protectorate Native Policy. June 4. 1913. P.C./NZA. 2/3. Nairobi Government Archives (hereafter cited as N.G.A.). Kyambu District Handing-Over Report. 1911. D.C./KBU. 1/2. N.G.A.

5 Sadler to Elgin. Oct. 7, 1906, CO. 533/17/conf., Hobley, C.W., Kenya, From Chartered Company to Crown Colony (London, 1970)Google Scholar. Richard Cashmere, Your Obedient Servant, Kenya 1895-1918, unpublished MSS., MSS. Air. S. 1034, R.H. Cashmere was a district commissioner in Kenya during these years. Sir James Hayes Sadler was Governor of Kenya from 1905-09: Victor Alexander Bruce, ninth Earl of Elgin was Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1905-08, in the Liberal government.

6 Various district records are preserved in the Nairobi Government Archives. For the training and preparation given new district officers, see Furse, R., Aucuparius (London, 1962)Google Scholar, Cashmere or Dundas.

7 Hemphill, Marie De Kiewiet, “The British Sphere 1884-94,” in Oliver, Roland and Mathew, Gervase, History of East Africa, Vol. I (Oxford, 1963), pp. 391–432Google Scholar. It may be true that Mackinnon, the founder of the I.B.E.A. had other motives for his company, but Lord Salisbury had come to see its establishment in the interest of the British Empire.

8 The problem of the grant's elimination while developing the country pre-dated the railway's completion, and reasserted itself constantly throughout the next decade. Eliot to Lansdowne, Dec. 13, 1901. F.O. 2/451/372. Girouard to Read, Nov. 13, 1909. C.O. 533/63/conf., P.R.O.

9 Ukamba Province Annual Report, 1911-12, P.C./C.P. 4/2/1, N.G.A.

10 Ross, William MacGregor, Kenya from Within (London, 1927), pp. 40, 62Google Scholar. Ainsworth to Horne, Dec. 2, 1903, D.C./MKS. 10A/1/1, N.G.A. Ross served in Kenya in the Public Works Department during this period.

11 Ukamba Province Annual Report, 1911-12, P.C./C.P./ 4/2/1. Kenia Province Political Record Book, P.C./C.P. 1/1/1, N.G.A. No census was taken during this period or for many years after. Population figures are based on hut tax returns and must be viewed with care.

12 Nyanza Province Annual Report, 1911-12, P.C./NZA. 1/7, N.G.A. Ainsworth often expressed his belief that his staff was too small to accomplish much. Especially in Ainsworth to Read, Aug. 8, 1912, CO. 533/130, P.R.O. His views were widely shared by district officials.

13 Eliot to Cranborne, May 15, 1901, F.O./2/447/125, and Eliot to Lansdowne, Apr. 9, 1902, F.O. 2/570/127, P.R.O. Eliot's views recur throughout his many dispatches and are readily available in his book published in 1905 and recently reprinted by Frank Cass Ltd., The East Africa Protectorate (London, 1972)Google ScholarPubMed. A revealing account of Eliot's goals is found in Meinertzhagen, Robert, Kenya Diary 1902-06 (Edinburgh, 1957), p. 31Google Scholar. The title commissioner was changed to governor in 1905. James Edward Cecil, Viscount Cranborne, (after 1903 fourth Marquess of Salisbury), was Undersecretary for Foreign Affairs, 1900-03. Jenry Charles Petty-Fitzmaurice, fifth Marquess of Lansdowne was Foreign Secretary, 1900-05.

14 Lansdowne to Eliot, Aug. 27, 1901, F.O. 2/443/325, P.R.O.

15 Girouard to Read, Nov. 16, 1909, CO. 533/63/conf., Ross, pp. 51, 100.

16 Machakos District Gazetteer, pp. 2-3, D.C./MKS. 14/3/2, N.G.A.

17 An available and intimate account of these activities, the diary of a K.A.R. officer is Meinertzhagen, pp. 62-74. Meinertzhagen saw these expeditions for what they were and makes no attempt to mask their savagery. For the loftier official view see Moyes-Bartlett, H., The King's African Rifles (Aldershot, 1956), pp. 204–06.Google Scholar

18 Sadler to Elgin, Aug. 10, 1908, CO. 533/46, P.R.O. Parliamentary Papers 1906, LXXIII, Cd. 2740, “Report Relating to the Administration of the East Africa Protectorate,” p. 186.

19 Machakos District Political Record Book, D.C./MKS. 4/1, N.G.A.

20 Observations on the selection and performance of government chiefs appear in most district and provincial records. Some examples: Kenia Province Political Record Book, P.C./C.P. 1/1/1; Kikuyu District Report, Dec. 31, 1909, D.C./CN. 1/5/1. N.G.A.

21 Kenia Province Political Record Book, P.C./C.P. 1/1/1; Ukamba Province Annual Report, 1912-13, P.C./C.P. 4/2/1, N.G.A.

22 C.C. Dundas' entry in Kekuyu District Political Record Book. 1908-12. Jan., 1912. P.C./C.P. 1/4/1, N.G.A.

23 Jackson to Crewe, July 13. 1909, CO. 533/61/384, encl. 1; Hollis to Jackson, July 8, 1909, P.R.O. A laborer was paid Rs/-3 or Rs/-4 for 30 days' work, sometimes including food. Rates fluctuated somewhat, but ordinary supply and demand was allowed to exert little influence. H.R. Tate, Report on Labour Supply, D.C/KBU. 3/38, N.G.A. Frederick Jackson was the Lieutenant-Governor of Kenya. Robert Crewe-Milnes, first Earl of Crewe, was Secretary of State for the Colonies, Elgin's successor.

24 Ukamba Province Annual Report, 1906-07, P.C./C.P. 4/2/1N.G.A.

25 The settlers' views were frankly stated by several witnesses before a commission to investigate labor problems. See testimony by John Boyes, Lord Delamere, G. Stanley, and R.B. Cole in Report of the Native Labour Commission, 1912, D.C./MKS. 15. N.G.A. This report and the testimony printed with it was published in Nairobi and attracted little notice outside Kenya. It deserved wider circulation then, and it still docs. It is the best single source of information about attitudes on a variety of issues with testimony by officials, settlers, Indians, and Africans.

26 Ukamba Province Annual Report, 1907-08. P.C./C.P. 4/2/1, N.G.A.

27 The course of discovery of Kikuyu land customs can be traced through the voluminous references in district and provincial records. The process is interesting. John Ainsworth, Memorandum on Native Land, 1904, D.C./MKS. 26/3/1; L. Talbot Smith. Origins and Native Laws. D.C/FH. 6/1. Smith was district commissioner at Fort Hall. January 1908-January 1910. M.W.H. Beech, Kikuyu Point of View, and Land Tenure in Kikuyu. D.C/KBU. 3/4. N.G.A. Beech was assistant district commissioner at Kyambu.

28 John Ainsworth. The Black Man and the While Man in East Africa unpublished MS., N.C., Air. MSS. 382. R.H. Ainsworlh's brother James was an assistant district commissioner among the Kamba. In 1910 he submitted a detailed report indicating that they too had a system of individual land tenure. Later that year he died ol black-water lever. James B. Ainsworth. Akamba Land Tenure. P.C./C.P. 1/2/1. N.G.A.

29 Ukamba Province Land File, D.C./MKS. 10A/1/5: Kitui District. Notes of Roads. Trade, and Etc., 1900-36. D.C/KTI. 7/3. Under Sir Percy Girouard. Nairobi's tone but not its basic policy changed somewhat. Sir P. Girouard. Memorandum on Native Development. 1910. D.C./CN. 6/1. N.G.A. Woolf, Leonard, Empire and Commerce in Africa (London, 1918), p. 342.Google Scholar

30 Ukamha Province Land File. D.C./MKS. 10A/1/5. N.G.A.

31 Ibid.: Eliot to Lansdowne. Aug. 25. 1903. F.O 2/715/382. P.R.O.

32 Nyanza Province Annual Report, 1912-13. P.C./NZA. 1/8; Dagoretti District Political Record Book. 1908-12. D.C/KBU. 3/4. N.G.A.

33 Occasionally the Public Works Department built a bridge. Kisumu Quarterly Report. June 31, 1911, D.C./CN. 1/5/1. Generally it was little help with any of the district commissioners' projects. Dagoretti Annual and Handing-Over Report. 1912-13. D.C/KBU. 1/4. N.G.A.

34 Disumu Quarterly Report. July 6, 1912, D.C./CN. 1/5/1; Ukamba Province Annual Report, 1907-08. P.C./C.P. 4/2/1. From 1908 to 1912 the district officers opened twenty-one permanent trading sites, of which two are now the towns of Kakemcga and Maragoli. Belfield to Harcourl. May 30. 1912, CO. 533/118. P.R.O. Herbert Belfield was the governor of Kenya. 1912-17. Lewis Harcourl was Secretary of State for the Colonics. 1910-15.

35 Report on Baraza between Provincial Commissioner and Gazetted Chiefs. June 14, 1912. Kitui District Political Record Book, D.C/KTI. 7/3. N.G.A.

36 Ainsworth to Eliot. Oct. 23, 1903, D.C./MKS. 10AI/I. Kikuyu Quarterly Report. June 30. 1911. D.C/KBU. 1/3. N.G.A.: Jackson to Elgin. Apr. 22. 1907. CO. 533/28. encl. I: C.W. Hobley. Report on the Kavirondo Famine, Apr. 14, 1907. P.R.O. Hobley was Provincial Commissioner for the province until 1907.

37 Report on the Nyanza Province. 1909-10. P.C./NZA. 1/5; Machakos District Gazetteer. D.C./MKS. 14/3/2. N.G.A.

38 Dagoretti Letter Book. Sept. 3, 1905. D.C/KBU. 8/3. N.G.A.

39 Thomason, Michael. “Economic Development in Kenya's Nyanza Province Before World War 1.” Publications of the African Studies Association (Waltham. Mass., 1972). pp. 72, 169Google Scholar; Fearn, Hugh. An African Economy (London, 1961).Google Scholar

40 The British treasury often expressed its reluctance to see any increase in expenditures until the annual grant was eliminated. However, exceptions were made, but never for experts to advise the Africans. Elgin to Sadler. July 4. 1907. House of Lords Papers 1907. IXGoogle Scholar. “Papers Relating to British East Africa.” 158. pp. 38-40. Ainsworth to Read. Aug. 8. 1913. CO. 5 130. P.R.O.

41 Sometimes adverse weather caused the failure. Kyambu Handing-Over Report, 1911. D.C/KBU. 1/2; Provincial Commissioners' Inspection Reports. June, 1912, D.C/KTI. 8/1. N.G.A.

42 Evidence given by Claude Hollis. Report of the Native Labour Commission, D.C./MKS. 15/I/I. Hollis noted that Africans farming in Nyanza were earning three times the monthly wage labor rate from the sale of their produce. Ukamba Province Annual Report. 1909-10. P.C./C.P. 4/2/1. The reports from Maehakos. Kitui, and Kyambu all indicate progress by African farmers. Nyanza Province Annual Report. 1909-10, P.C/NZA. 1/5, N.G.A. Hollis was Secretary for Native Affairs, 1907-12.

43 Evidence given by Shundu. Olietch, and Ogola. Report of the Native Labour Commission. D.C./MKS. 15/1/1. N.G.A.

44 Ibid., Report of Findings.

45 Parliamentary Papers. 1914–1916. XCVI. Cd. 7165Google Scholar. “Statistical Abstract of the Several British…Protectorates in each year from 1889 to 1912.” pp. 439, 443. Girouard to Crewe, conf., May 26. 1910. CO. 533/74. encl. “Report on the British East Africa Protectorate,” P.R.O. Nyanza Province Annual Report, 1912-13, P.C./NZA. 1/7, N.G.A. Sir Perey Girouard was Governor of Kenya 1909-12.

46 The settlers.erroneously supposed that they had done this, or rather encouraged one and all to believe they had. Their ruse still is occasionally successful. See Miller, Charles. Lunatic Express (New York, 1973).Google Scholar

47 Testimony by F.W. Isaacs, District Commissioner of Kyambu Native Labour Commission. D.C./MKS. 15/1/1. John Ainsworth, Memorandum on European Settlement. April 14. 1908, P.C./NZA. 3/21/1/1. J.R. Tate. Administration of Both Native and Settled Areas. Kikuyu Annual Report, 1910-11, D.C/KBU. 1/2. Charles Dundas. Kyambu Handing-Over Report. 1912. N.G.A. Ross. p. 99.

48 Report on the Nyanza Province. 1912-13. P.C./NZA. 1/8; Veterinary Work in Kenia Province. P.C./C.P. 1/1/2. N.G.A.

49 Nyanza Province Annual Report, 1912-13, P.C./NZA. 1/8; Report on the Ukamba Province, 1907-08, P.C. 4/2/1, N.G.A.

50 Nyanza Province Annual Report, 1912-13, P.C./NZA. 1/8, N.G.A.

51 Machakos District Political Record Book, 1908-12, D.C./MKS. 4/1. The situation was somewhat better in Kyambu. Kyambu Handing-Over Report, 1911, D.C/KBU. 1/2, N.G.A.

52 Ainsworth to Read, Aug. 8, 1913, CO. 533/130, P.R.O. F.W. Isaacs in Report on the Ukamba Province, 1907-08, P.C./C.P. 4/2/1, N.G.A.

53 C.C Dundas'/entry in Kikuyu District Political Record Book, 1908-12, January, 1912, P.C./C.P. 1/4/1, N.G.A. Girouard to Crewe, conf., Nov. 13, 1909, C.O. 533/63, encl., C.W. Hobley and John Ainsworth, Native Policy Proposal, P.R.O. Some district commissioners did not share these views. Testimony of R.G. Stone, acting district commissioner at Fort Hall, C.S. Hemsted, district commissioner of Nairobi, Native Labour Commission, D.C./MKS. 15/1/1, N.G.A.

54 Ainsworth to Read, Aug. 8, 1913; Ainsworth to Downie. Sept. 3, 1913. CO. 533/130. Herbert J. Read was chief clerk in the Colonial Office, 1904-16; Arthur Downie was a clerk in the office.

55 Ibid.; minutes by Read and others, Aug. 20. 1913.

56 Belfield to Harcourt, Nov. 29, 1913, CO. 533/124; minutes by Read. Dec. 23. 1913. P R O.