Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-18T00:59:54.813Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Hunter-Gatherer Storage, Settlement, and the Opportunity Costs of Women’s Foraging

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Carly S. Whelan ,
Adrian R. Whitaker ,
Jeffrey S. Rosenthal  and
Eric Wohlgemuth
Carly S. Whelan
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 (cswhelan@ucdavis.edu)
Adrian R. Whitaker
Affiliation:
Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Davis, CA 95618
Jeffrey S. Rosenthal
Affiliation:
Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Davis, CA 95618
Eric Wohlgemuth
Affiliation:
Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Davis, CA 95618
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Food storage is a crucial adaptation for hunter-gatherers who face seasonal resource shortfalls, but the extra time that hunter-gatherer s must spend accumulating food surpluses has the potential to conflict with the time they need for other activities during seasons of abundance. Since the activities that conflict with storage may be different for women and men, it is important to consider which gender is responsible for storage. We argue that when women perform most storage tasks, the tradeoff between foraging and childcare is likely to shape storage behavior, particularly the decision of which foods to store. Our analysis of storage food preferences among the prehistoric hunter-gatherers of California’s Sierra Nevada suggests that women altered their storage strategy during the late Holocene when the shift to a semi-sedentary settlement system increased the conflict they faced between foraging and providing childcare. The adoption of an acorn-based storage economy during this period allowed women to minimize the time they spent foraging away from their residential bases, so they could better accommodate their childcare needs. This study demonstrates the utility of considering issues beyond the rate of caloric return from foraging to develop more complete models of hunter-gatherer behavior and explanations of the archaeological record.

Resumen

Resumen

El almacenamiento de la comida es una adaptación crίtica para cazadores-recolectores quien se enfrentan déficits estacionales en los alimentos, pero el tiempo que los cazadores-recolectores tienen que gastar en acumular excedentes de comida puede estar en pugna con otras demandas en su tiempo durante las estaciones de abundancia. Como las actividades que están en conflicto con el almacenamiento pueden ser diferentes para hombres y mujeres, también es importante considerar cual sexo es lo responsable para almacenar. Sostenemos que cuando las mujeres hacen la mayorίa del trabajo relacionado con almacenamiento, la interacción entre buscar la comida o cuidar los niños va a influenciar su comportamiento con respecto al almacenamiento. Nuestro análisis de las preferencias entre cazadores-recolectores prehistóricos de las montañas de la Sierra Nevada de California sugiere que las mujeres cambiaron su estrategia de almacenamiento durante el Holoceno Tardίo cuando el cambio a un sistema de asentamiento semi-sedentario aumentó el conflicto que se enfrentaron entre buscar comida y cuidar los niños. La adopción de una economίa basada en el almacenamiento de bellotas durante esta época permitió que las mujeres acomodaran sus necesidades de cuidar niños en una mejora manera. Este estudio muestra la utilidad de considerar asuntos afuera de la taza calórica de retorno de forrajear para desarrollar modelos más completos del comportamiento de los cazadores-recolectores y explicaciones del registro arqueológico.

Type
Articles
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 78 , Issue 4 , October 2013 , pp. 662 - 678
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Aginsky, Burt W. 1943 Culture Element Distributions, XXIV: Central Sierra. Anthropological Records Vol. 8, No. 4. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Asch, Nancy B., Ford, Richard I., and Asch, David L. 1972 Paleoethnobotany of the Koster Site: The Archaic Horizons. Reports of Investigations No. 24. Illinois State Museum, Springfield.Google Scholar
Barlow, K. Renee, and Heck, Melissa 2002 More on Acorn Eating during the Natufian: Expected Patterning in Diet and the Archaeological Record of Subsistence. In Hunter-Gatherer Archaeobotany: Perspectives from the Northern Temperate Zone, edited by Sarah L. R. Mason and Jon G. Hather, pp. 128–145. Institute of Archaeology, University College, London.Google Scholar
Barlow, K. Renee, and Metcalfe, Duncan 1996 Plant Utility Indices: Two Great Basin Examples. Journal of Archaeological Science 23:351–371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett, S.A. 1908 The Geography and Dialects of the Miwok Indians. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 6:333–368.Google Scholar
Barrett, S. A., and Gifford, Edward W. 1933 Miwok Material Culture. Bulletin of the Milwaukee Public Museum 2:117–376.Google Scholar
Bean, Lowell J., and Theodoratus, Dorothea 1978 Western Porno and Northeastern Pomo. In California, edited by Robert F. Heizer, pp. 289–305. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Bettinger, Robert L. 1987 Archaeological Approaches to Hunter-Gatherers. Annual Review of Anthropology 16:121–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bettinger, Robert L. 2009 Hunter-Gatherer Foraging: Five Simple Models. Eliot Werner, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bettinger, Robert L., Malhi, Ripan, and McCarthy, Helen 1997 Central Place Models of Acorn and Mussel Processing. Journal of Archaeological Science 24:887–899.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bird, Douglas W., and Bird, Rebecca Bliege 1997 Contemporary Shellfish Gathering Strategies among the Meriam of the Torres Strait Islands, Australia: Testing Predictions of a Central Place Foraging Model. Journal of Archaeological Science 24:39–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bird, Douglas W., and Bird, Rebecca Bliege 2005 Martu Children’s Hunting Strategies in the Western Desert, Australia. In Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods: Evolutionary, Developmental, and Cultural Perspectives, edited by Barry S. Hewlett and Michael E. Lamb, pp. 129–146. Transaction, New Brunswick, New Jersey.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bliege Bird, Rebecca 1999 Cooperation and Conflict: The Behavioral Ecology of the Sexual Division of Labor. Evolutionary Anthropology 8:65–75.3.0.CO;2-3>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bliege Bird, Rebecca 2007 Fishing and the Sexual Division of Labor among the Meriam. American Anthropologist 109:442–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bliege Bird, Rebecca, and Bird, Douglas W. 2008 Why Women Hunt: Risk and Contemporary Foraging in a Western Desert Aboriginal Community. Current Anthropology 49:655–693.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blurton Jones, N., Hawkes, Kristen, and Draper, Patricia 1994a Differences between Hadza and IKung Children’s Work: Original Affluence or Practical Reason? In Key Issues in Hunter-Gatherer Research, edited by Ernest S. Burch and Linda J. Ellanna, pp. 189–215. Berg, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blurton Jones, N., Hawkes, Kristen, and Draper, Patricia 1994b Foraging Patterns of IKung Adults and Children: Why Didn’t IKung Children Forage? Journal of Anthropological Research 50:217–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broughton, Jack M. 2002 Prey Spatial Structure and Behavior Affect Archaeological Tests of Optimal Foraging Models: Examples from the Emeryville Shellmound Vertebrate Fauna. World Archaeology 34:60–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brunelle, Andrea, and Anderson, Scott 2003 Sedimentary Charcoal as an Indicator of Late-Holocene Drought in the Sierra Nevada, California, and Its Relevance to the Future. The Holocene 13:21–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cannon, Michael D. 2003 A Model of Central Place Forager Prey Choice and an Application to Faunal Remains from the Mimbres Valley, New Mexico. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22:1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Codding, Brian F., Bird, Rebecca Bliege, and Bird, Douglas W. 2011 Provisioning Offspring and Others: Risk-Energy Trade-Offs and Gender Differences in Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Societies. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Biological Sciences 278:2502–2509.Google Scholar
Cook, Sherburne F. 1955 The Aboriginal Population of the San Joaquin Valley, California. University of California Anthropological Records 16(2):31–80, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Couture, Marilyn D., Ricks, Mary F., and Housley, Lucile 1986 Foraging Behavior of a Contemporary Northern Great Basin Population. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 8:150–160.Google Scholar
Driver, H. E. 1937 Culture Element Distributions, VI: Southern Sierra Nevada. University of California Anthropological Records, Vol. 1, No. 2. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Eerkens, Jelmer W., King, Jerome, and Wohlgemuth, Eric 2004 The Prehistoric Development of Intensive Green-Cone Pinon Processing in Eastern California. Journal of Field Archaeology 29:17–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elston, Robert G., and Zeanah, David W. 2002 Thinking outside the Box: A New Perspective on Diet Breadth and Sexual Division of Labor in the Prearchaic Great Basin. World Archaeology 34:103–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Essene, F. 1942 Culture Element Distributions, XXI: Round Valley. University of California Anthropological Records, Vol. 8, No. 1. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Farris, Glenn J. 1982 Aboriginal Use of Pine Nuts in California: An Ethnological, Nutritional, and Archaeological Investigation into the Uses of the Seeds of Pinus lambertiana Dougl. and Pinus sabiniana Dougl. by the Indians of Northern California. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis.Google Scholar
Gifford, Edward W. 1926 Miwok Lineages and the Political Unit in Aboriginal California. American Anthropologist 28:389–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gifford, Edward W., and Kroeber, Alfred L. 1937 Culture Element Distribution III: Porno. University of California Anthropological Records 37:117–254.Google Scholar
Gilliland, Linda E. 1985 Proximate Analysis and Mineral Composition of Traditional California Native American Foods. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis.Google Scholar
Goland, Carol 1991 The Ecological Context of Hunter-Gatherer Storage: Environmental Predictability and Environmental Risk. Michigan Discussions in Anthropology 10:107–125.Google Scholar
Goodman, Madeleine J., Bion Griffin, P., Estioko-Griffin, Agnes A., and Grove, John S. 1985 The Compatibility of Hunting and Mothering among the Agta Hunter-Gatherers of the Philippines. Sex Roles 12:1199–1209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, Nicholas E., and Hughes, Malcolm K. 2007 Reconstructing the Mediaeval Low Stands of Mono Lake, Sierra Nevada, California, USA. The Holocene 17:1197–1210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffin, James R. 1977 Oak Woodland. In Terrestrial Vegetation of California, edited by Michael G. Barbour and Jack Major, pp. 383–115. John Wiley and Sons, New York.Google Scholar
Gurven, Michael, Winking, Jeffrey, Kaplan, Hillard, von Rueden, Christopher, and McAllister, Lisa 2009 A Bioeconomic Approach to Marriage and the Sexual Division of Labor. Human Nature 20:151–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hames, Raymond 1988 The Allocation of Parental Care among the Ye’kwana. In Human Reproductive Behavior, edited by Laura Betzig, Monique Borgerhoff Mulder, and Paul Turke, pp. 237–254. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hames, Raymond 1992 Time Allocation. In Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behavior, edited by Eric A. Smith and Bruce Winterhalder, pp. 203–235. Aldine de Gruyter, New York.Google Scholar
Hawkes, Kristen, O’Connell, James F., Hill, Kim R., and Charnov, Eric L. 1985 How Much Is Enough? Hunters and Limited Needs. Ethnology and Sociobiology 6:3–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkes, Kristen, O’Connell, James F., and Blurton Jones, N. G. 1995 Hadza Children’s Foraging: Juvenile Dependency, Social Arrangements, and Mobility among Hunter-Gatherers. Current Anthropology 36:688–700.Google Scholar
Hawkes, Kristen, O’Connell, James F., and Blurton Jones, N. G. 1997 Hadza Women’s Time Allocation, Offspring Provisioning, and the Evolution of Long Postmenopausal Life Spans. Current Anthropology 38:551–577.Google Scholar
Heizer, Robert F., and Elsasser, Albert B. 1980 The Natural World of the California Indians. University of California Press, Berkeley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hewlett, Barry S. 1991 Demography and Childcare in Preindustrial Societies. Journal of Anthropological Research 47:1–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurtado, A. Magdalena, Hawkes, Kristen, Hill, Kim R., and Kaplan, Hillaid 1985 Female Subsistence Strategies among Ache Hunter-Gatherers of Eastern Paraguay. Human Ecology 13:1–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurtado, A. Magdalena, and Hill, Kim R. 1987 Early Dry Season Subsistence Ecology of Cuiva (Hiwi) Foragers of Venezuela. Human Ecology 15:163–187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurtado, A. Magdalena, Hill, Kim R., Kaplan, Hillard, and Hurtado, Ines 1992 Tradeoffs between Female Food Acquisition and Child Care among Hiwi and Ache Foragers. Human Nature 3:185–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, Jerald Jay 1978 Yana. In California, edited by Robert F. Heizer, pp. 225–235. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Jones, Terry L., Brown, Gary M., Mark Raab, L., McVickar, Janet L., Geoffrey Spaulding, W., Kennett, Douglas J., York, Andrew, and Walker, Phillip L. 1999 Environmental Imperatives Reconsidered: Demographic Crises in Western North America during the Medieval Climatic Anomaly. Current Anthropology 40:137–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, Hillard, and Hill, Kim R. 1992 The Evolutionary Ecology of Food Aquisition. In Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behavior, edited by Eric A. Smith and Bruce Winterhalder, pp. 167–201. Aldine de Gruyter, New York.Google Scholar
Kelly, Robert L. 1995 The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Kroeber, Alfred L. 1925 Handbook of the Indians of California. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
LaPena, Frank R. 1978 Wintu. In California, edited by Robert F. Heizer, pp. 324–340. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
MacArthur, Robert H., and Pianka, Eric R. 1966 On Optimal Use of a Patchy Environment. The American Naturalist 100:603–609.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarthy, Helen 1993 A Political Economy of Western Mono Acorn Production. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis.Google Scholar
Madsen, David B. 1993 Testing Diet Breadth Models: Examining Adaptive Change in the Late Prehistoric Great Basin. Journal of Archaeological Science 20:321–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madsen, David B., and Schmitt, Dave N. 1998 Mass Collecting and the Diet Breadth Model: A Great Basin Example. Journal of Archaeological Science 25:445–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marlowe, Frank 2003 A Critical Period for Provisioning by Hadza Men: Implications for Pair Bonding. Evolution and Human Behavior 24:217–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marlowe, Frank 2005 Who Tends Hadza Children? In Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods: Evolutionary, Developmental, and Cultural Perspectives, edited by Barry S. Hewlett and Michael E. Lamb, pp. 177–190. Transaction, New Brunswick, New Jersey.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merriam, C. Hart 1967 Central California Indian Tribes. In Ethnographic Notes on California Indian Tribes, Vol. 3. Archaeological Survey Reports No. 68. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, Duncan, and Renee Barlow, K. 1992 A Model for Exploring the Optimal Trade-Off between Field Processing and Transport. American Anthropologist 94:340–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, Jack 2008 Prehistory of the Sonora Region: Archaeological and Geoarchaeological Investigations for Stage 1 of the East Sonora Bypass Project, State Route 108, Tuolumne County, California. Volume IIa: Projectwide Geoarchaeological Study and Archaeological Investigations at Four Prehistoric Sites: CA-TUO-2640, -2643, -4556, and -4559. Far Westem Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis, California. Prepared for and on file at Central California Cultural Resources Branch, California Department of Transportation, District 6, Fresno.Google Scholar
Moratto, Michael J. 1984 California Archaeology. Academic, New York.Google Scholar
Morgan, Christopher 2006 Late Prehistoric Territorial Expansion and Maintenance in the South-Central Sierra Nevada. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis.Google Scholar
Morgan, Christopher 2008 Reconstructing Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Radii: A Case Study from California’s Southern Sierra Nevada. Journal of Archaeological Science 35:247–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, Christopher 2009 Climate Change, Uncertainty and Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherer Mobility. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28:382–396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, Christopher 2012 Modeling Modes of Hunter-Gatherer Food Storage. American Antiquity 77:714–736.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muir, John 1911 My First Summer in the Sierra. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah M. 2000 Paleoethnobotany: A Handbook of Procedures. Academic Press, San Diego, California.Google Scholar
Raven, Christopher, and Elston, Robert G. 1989 Prehistoric Human Geography in the Carson Desert. Part 1: A Predictive Model of Land-Use in the Stillwater Management Area. Cultural Resource Series No. 3. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, Oregon.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, Jeffrey S. (editor) 2008 Prehistory of the Sonora Region: Archaeological and Geoarchaeological Investigations for Stage 1 of the East Sonora Bypass Project, State Route 108, Tuolumne County, California. Volume I: Synthesis. Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis, California. Prepared for and on file at Central California Cultural Resources Branch, California Department of Transportation, District 6, Fresno.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, Jeffrey S. 2011 A New Frame of Reference: Prehistoric Cultural Chronology and Ecology in the North-Central Sierra Nevada. Publication No. 16. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, Davis, California.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, Jeffrey S. 2012 Data Recovery Excavations at CA-TUO-2194, -2469, and -4627/H for Stage 2 of the East Sonora Bypass Project, State Route 108, Tuolumne County, California. Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis, California. Prepared for California Department of Transportation, District 6, Fresno. Manuscript on file, Central California Information Center, Stanislaus State University, Turlock.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, Jeffrey S., and McGuire, Kelly R. 2004 Middle Holocene Adaptations in the Central Sierra Nevada Foothills: Data Recovery Excavations at the Black Creek Site, CA-CAL-789. Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis, California. Prepared for California Department of Transportation, District 10, Stockton. Manuscript on file, Central California Information Center, Stanislaus State University, Turlock.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, Jeffrey S., Meyer, Jack, Costello, Julia, and Marvin, Judith 2007 Cultural Resources Survey and Evaluation for the Tuscany Hills Project, Lake Tulloch, Calaveras County. Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis, California. Prepared for Red Mountain Resorts, LLC, Jamestown, California. Manuscript on file, Central California Information Center, Stanislaus State University, Turlock.Google Scholar
Rowley-Conwy, Peter, and Zvelebil, Marek 1989 Saving It for Later: Storage by Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers in Europe. In Bad Year Economics: Cultural Responses to Risk and Uncertainty, edited by Paul Halstead and John O’Shea, pp. 40–56. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schoener, Thomas W. 1971 Theory of Feeding Strategies. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2:369–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simms, Steven R. 1987 Behavioral Ecology and Hunter-Gatherer Foraging: An Example from the Great Basin. BAR International Series No. 381. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silver, Shirley 1978 Shastan Peoples. In California, edited by Robert F Heizer, pp. 211–224. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Siskin, Barbara, and Martin, Thomas 2013 Archaeological Evaluation Report for CA-CAL-116, Mountain Ranch Road Shoulder Improvements Project, Calaveras County, California. Garcia and Associates, Auburn, California. Prepared for County of Calaveras. Submitted to California Department of Transportation, District 10, Stockton. Manuscript on file, Central California Information Center, Stanislaus State University, Turlock.Google Scholar
Smith, Eric A. 1987 On Fitness Maximization, Limited Needs, and Hunter-Gatherer Time Allocation. Ethnology and Sociobiology 8:73–85.Google Scholar
Stephens, David W., and Krebs, John R. 1986 Foraging Theory. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Steward, Julian H. 1938 Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 120. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Stine, Scott 1994 Extreme and Persistent Drought in California and Patagonia during Mediaeval Time. Nature 339:546–549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Surovell, Todd A. 2000 Early Paleoindian Women, Children, Mobility, and Fertility. American Antiquity 65:493–508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thorpe, Linda, Marvin, Judith, Costello, Julia, Wohlgemuth, Eric, and Andolina, Darren 2007 Cultural Resource Survey and Evaluation at Murphys Creek Estates, Murphys, California. Foothill Resources, Ltd., Mokelumne Hill, California. Prepared for Leroy and Vera Ginn, and Daniel and Debra Ginn. Manuscript on file, Central California Information Center, Stanislaus State University, Turlock.Google Scholar
Trammell, Joshua, O’Connell, James F., Bush, Sarah E., Parker, Christopher H., Borghi, Penni, Hunsaker, Lori, and Bird, Douglas W. 2008 Exploring Geophyte Use in the Northern Great Basin: Nutrient Content, Handling Costs, Effects of Fire and Tillage, and Archaeological Implications. Paper presented at the Great Basin Anthropology Association Conference, Portland, Oregon.Google Scholar
Tucker, Bram, and Young, Alyson G. 2005 Growing up Mikea: Children’s Time Allocation and Tuber Foraging in Southwestern Madagascar. In Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods: Evolutionary, Developmental, and Cultural Perspectives, edited by Barry S. Hewlett and Michael E. Lamb, pp. 147–171. Transaction, New Brunswick, New Jersey.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ugan, Andrew 2005 Does Size Matter? Body Size, Mass Collecting, and Their Implications for Understanding Prehistoric Foraging Behavior. American Antiquity 70:75–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Voegelin, Erminie 1942 Culture Element Distributions, XX: Northeast California. Anthropological Records, Vol. 7, No. 2. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Waechter, Sharon A., and Andolina, Darren 2008 Salvage Excavations in a Portion ofCA-ELD-44/H at White Oak Flat, Western El Dorado County. Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis, California. Prepared for El Dorado Irrigation District, Placerville, California.Google Scholar
Watts, David 1959 Human Occupance as a Factor in the Distribution of the Digger Pine (Pinus sabiniana) . Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Waugh, Georgie, and Rondeau, Michael F. 1990 Phase II Test Evaluation Report for Archaeological Sites CA-TUO-2192, CA-TUO-2197, and CA-TUO-2349 on State Route 108, for the East Sonora Bypass Project Tuolumne County, California. 10-TUO-108 P.M. R2.0/ R6.9, 10-340400. California Department of Transportation, Sacramento. Prepared for Environmental Planning Branch, California Department of Transportation, District 10, Stockton. On file, Central California Information Center, Stanislaus State University, Turlock. Weiss, Kenneth M.Google Scholar
Waugh, Georgie, and Rondeau, Michael F. 1973 Demographic Models for Anthropology. Memoir No. 27. Society for American Archaeology, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Whitaker, Adrian R., and Rosenthal, Jeffrey S. 2010a 9,000 Years of Prehistory at the Poppy Hills Site: Data Recovery Excavations at CA-TUO-2797/H for the Poppy Hills Curve Realignment Project, Tuolumne County, California. Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis, California. Prepared for California Department of Transportation, District 10, Stockton. Manuscript on file, Central California Information Center, Stanislaus State University, Turlock.Google Scholar
Whitaker, Adrian R., and Rosenthal, Jeffrey S. 2010b Data Recovery Excavations at CA-AMA-34 for the Defender Grade State Route 88 Left Turn Lane Project, Amador County, California. Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis, California. Prepared for California Department of Transportation, District 10, Stockton. Manuscript on file, Central California Information Center, Stanislaus State University, Turlock.Google Scholar
Whitaker, Adrian R., and Rosenthal, Jeffrey S. 2011 Phase II Archaeological Evaluation of CA-CAL-1983 Savage Way Rehabilitation Project San Joaquin and Calaveras Counties, California. Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis, California. Prepared for California Department of Transportation, District 10, Stockton. Manuscript on file, Central California Information Center, Stanislaus State University, Turlock.Google Scholar
Wilson, Norman L., and Towne, Arlean H. 1978 Nisenan. In California, edited by Robert F. Heizer, pp. 387–397. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Winking, Jeffrey, Gurven, Michael, Kaplan, Hillard, and Stieglitz, Jonathan 2009 The Goals of Direct Paternal Care among a South Amerindian Population. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 139:295–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winterhalder, Bruce 1981 Foraging Strategies in the Boreal Forest: An Analysis of Cree Hunting and Gathering. In Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Strategies: Ethnographic and Archaeological Analyses, edited by Bruce Winterhalder and Eric A. Smith, pp. 66–98. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Winterhalder, Bruce 1983 Opportunity-Cost Foraging Models for Stationary and Mobile Predators. American Naturalist 122:73–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winterhalder, Bruce, and Smith, Eric A. (editors) 1981 Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Strategies: Ethnographic and Archaeological Analyses. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Winterhalder, Bruce, and Smith, Eric A. 2000 Analyzing Adaptive Strategies: Human Behavioral Ecology at Twenty-Five. Evolutionary Anthropology 9:51–72.3.0.CO;2-7>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wohlgemuth, Eric, and Whitaker, Adrian R. 2009 Data Recovery Investigations at the Angels Camp Bypass, Calaveras County, California. Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc., Davis, California. Submitted to Caltrans District 6, Fresno, California. Report on file, Central California Information Center, Stanislaus State University, Turlock.Google Scholar
Zeanah, David W. 2000 Transport Costs, Central Place Foraging, and Hunter-Gatherer Alpine Land-Use Strategies. In Intermountain Archaeology, edited by David B. Madsen and Duncan Metcalfe, pp. 1–14. Anthropological Papers No. 122. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Zeanah, David W. 2004 Sexual Division of Labor and Central Place Foraging: A Model for the Carson Desert of Western Nevada. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23:1–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeanah, David W., Carter, James A., Dugas, Daniel P., Elston, Robert G., and Hammett, Julia E. 1995 An Optimal Foraging Model of Hunter-Gatherer Land Use in the Carson Desert. Intermountain Research, Silver City, Nevada.Google Scholar
Zeanah, David W., Codding, Brian F., Bird, Douglas W., Bird, Rebecca Bliege, and Veth, Peter 2012 Diesel and Damper: Disintensification among the Martu of Western Australia. Paper presented at the 77th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Memphis, Tennessee.Google Scholar