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Race, the New Black: On Fashioning Genetic Brand

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 January 2021

Patricia J. Williams
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American Journal of Law & Medicine , Volume 43 , Issue 2-3: Critical Race Theory & the Health Sciences , May 2017 , pp. 183 - 191
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Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics and Boston University 2017

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Footnotes

†

[Professional appointment: Title; University.] [Educational background: University, Degree. Highest to lowest.]

References

1 Roberts, Dorothy, Prison, Foster Care, and the Systemic Punishment of Black Mothers, 59 UCLA L. Rev. 1474, 1477 (2012)Google Scholar; Dorothy Roberts, Univ. Pa. L. Sch., Major Address at the Boston University American Journal of Law and Medicine Symposium: Critical Race Theory and Health Sciences (Jan. 20, 2017); Alexandra Stern, Professor, U. of Mich., Dep’ts of Hist., Women’s Stud., and Obstetrics and Gynecology, Panel I: Critical Histories of the Present: Shared Formations of the Legal and Scientific Study of Race at the Boston University American Journal of Law and Medicine Symposium: Critical Race Theory and Health Sciences (Jan. 20, 2017).

2 Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects, 82 Fed. Reg. 7149 (Jan. 19, 2017) (to be codified at 49 C.F.R. pt. 11); see also Scientists Needn’t Get A Patient’s Consent to Study Blood or DNA, NPR (Jan. 18, 2017, 6:41 PM), http://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2017/01/18/510442240/scientists-neednt-get-a-patients-consent-to-study-blood-or-dna [https://perma.cc/UG9K-65QZ].

3 Federal Policy For The Protection of Human Subjects, supra note 2.

4 Id. at 7151.

5 Rebecca Skloot, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks 1–4 (2010).

6 See, e.g., Ariana Eunjung Cha, Watson’s Next Feat? Taking on Cancer, Wash. Post (June 27, 2015), http://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/national/2015/06/27/watsons-next-feat-taking-on-cancer/?utm_term=.6debb552d189 [https://perma.cc/F63W-RNY3].

7 See, e.g., Stinson Carter, A Day in the Life of Anne Wojcicki, WSJ (Jan. 12, 2016), https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-day-in-the-life-of-anne-wojcicki-1452613783 [https://perma.cc/QEU3-DECX].

8 See, e.g., Ariana Eunjung Cha, Tech Titans’ Latest Project: Defy Death, Wash. Post (Apr. 4, 2015), http://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/national/2015/04/04/tech-titans-latest-project-defy-death/?utm_term=.3f583df62230 [https://perma.cc/7CE2-PTMF].

9 See Ed Yong, The CDC’s New Quarantine Rule Could Violate Civil Liberties, Atl. Monthly (Dec. 16, 2016), https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/12/cdc-quarantine-rule-violate-civil-liberties/511823/ [https://perma.cc/WY6T-P833]; Ctr. for Disease Control & Prevention, Legal Authorities for Isolation and Quarantine, CDC.gov (Oct. 8, 2014), https://www.cdc.gov/quarantine/aboutlawsregulationsquarantineisolation.html [https://perma.cc/JK2B-TE5J].

10 See Guenter B. Risse, Driven by Fear: Epidemics and Isolation in San Francisco's House of Pestilence 21 (2016).

11 See Fauci, Anthony S. & Morens, David M., Zika Virus in the Americas – Yet Another Arbovirus Threat, 374 New Eng. J. Med. 601, 603 (2016)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Shah, N. Sarita et al., Transmission of Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis in South Africa, 376 New Eng. J. Med. 243, 243 (2017).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

12 See Mosquito Spraying Events, NYC Health, http://www1.nyc.gov/site/doh/health/health-topics/west-nile-virus-spray.page [https://perma.cc/6ZL6-D4UU].

13 See generally id.; New York City Wages War on the Zika Virus, N.Y. Times, (Aug. 22, 2016), https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/22/nyregion/new-york-city-zika-virus.html?_r=0.

14 See Lev Facher, Obamacare Repeal and Trump’s Spending Plan Put CDC Budget in Peril, STAT (Mar. 7, 2017), https://www.statnews.com/2017/03/07/cdc-budget-obamacare-repeal/ [https://perma.cc/W7DP-RYSJ]; Donovan Slack, Trump Budget to Increase Defense, Slash EPA, Other Agencies, USA Today, (Feb. 27, 2017), http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2017/02/27/trump-budget-increase-defense-slash-epa-other-agencies/98475706/ [https://perma.cc/B33M-NL3J].

15 See Robert Pear, Trump’s Health Secretary Pick Leaves Nation’s Doctors Divided, N.Y. Times (Dec. 26, 2016), https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/26/us/tom-price-hhs-donald-trump-cabinet.html?_r=0.

16 See id. at 67 (“The PMI-CP should leverage existing public and private expertise to design and implement large scale, elastic data storage and analysis capabilities to serve [their] needs … [t]he PMI-CP should take advantage of state-of-the-art cloud computing environments that could involve novel public-private and academic-commercial partnerships.”).; see also Nat’l Inst. of Health, The Precision Medicine Initiative Cohort Program – Building a Research Foundation for 21ST Century Medicine 9 (2015), https://www.nih.gov/sites/default/files/research-training/initiatives/pmi/pmi-working-group-report-20150917-2.pdf (“President Obama announced his intention to launch the PMI ‘to bring us closer to curing diseases like cancer and diabetes, and to give all of us access to the personalized information we need to keep ourselves and our families healthier.’”).

17 See, e.g., Coral Davenport, Senate Confirms Scott Pruitt as E.P.A. Head, N.Y. Times (Feb. 17, 2017), https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/17/us/politics/scott-pruitt-environmental-protection-agency.html?_r=0 (“Mr. Pruitt, the Oklahoma attorney general who has built a career out of suing to block the E.P.A.’s major environmental rules and has called for the dissolution of much of the agency’s authority.”).

18 Kahn, Jonathan, Pills for Prejudice: Implicit Bias and Technical Fix for Racism; 43 Am. J.L. & Med. 263 (2017)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Kaufman, Jay, Statistics, Adjusted Statistics and Maladjusted Statistics, 43 Am. J.L. & Med. 193 (2017).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

19 See, e.g., Keith Wailoo et al., Genetics and the Unsettled Past: The Collision of DNA, Race, and History 1–3 (2012) (“[T]his new era of genetic analysis has expanded far beyond the arena of origin stories and popular science of the last few years—connecting individuals and group to imagined ancestors …. The mere hint that genetic markets are distributed in different frequencies across populations has led some people to quickly treat such variation as a proxy for racial and ethnic differences, lending renewed authority to biological conceptions of human difference …. Although many scholars have long agreed that race is a social phenomenon rather than a biological fact, these recent developments in DNA analysis have blurred this distinction. In these and many other ways, the rise of this singularly potent science has transformed scholarly and popular opinions about the ‘nature’ of race.”).

20 See generally id. at 228–29 (“[A] crucial way in which the cultural distinctiveness—and nationhood—of Indigenous societies has been denied within the colonizing society has been to reduce cultural identity to race, therefore reducing Nativeness to appearance, with its implicit connection to ‘purity’ of blood.”); Bonita Lawrence, ‘Real’ Indians and Others: Mixed-Blood Urban Native Peoples and Indigenous Nationhood 1 (2004) (“For many years traditional academic understandings of Native identity have been … combined with ‘racial’ purity ….”); Villella, Peter B., “Pure and Noble Indians, Untainted by Inferior Idolatrous Races”: Native Elites and the Discourse of Blood Purity in Late Colonial Mexico, 91 Hisp. Am. Hist. Rev. 633, 633 (2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (“At the turn of the eighteenth century,” Spain engaged in a “discourse of ‘blood purity’ …. ‘Impurity’ came to indicate an ancestry (or ‘blood’) tainted by Jews, Muslims, or heretics ….”).

21 See, e.g., E.G.R. Taylor, The Haven-Finding Art: A History of Navigation from Odysseus to Captain Cook 8–12 (1971).

22 Naming of Astronomical Objects, Int’l Astronomical Union, https://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming/ [https://perma.cc/FT5Y-6BUW].

23 Dorothy Roberts, Race, Gender, and Genetic Technologies: A New Reproductive Dystopia?, 34 J. Women Culture & Soc’y 783, 785 (2009).

24 Roberts, supra note 1.

25 Dorothy Roberts, Killing The Black Body 202–45, (2017).

26 Civiliter mortuus is defined as “[a] person civilly dead, deprived of civil rights.” Civiliter, Black’s Law Dictionary (10th ed. 2014).

27 Stern, supra note 1.

28 U.S. Dep’t of Just., Office of Just. Programs, Bureau of Just. Stat., NCJ 248479, Correctional Populations in the United States, 2013 (2014) (illustrating the number of incarcerated adults in the United States); Data on China, World Prison Brief (Feb. 28, 2017), http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/china [https://perma.cc/DS7M-Z92M]; The World Fact Book: Country Comparison: Population, Cent. Intelligence Agency (Feb. 28, 2017), https://www.cia.gov/library/Publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html [https://perma.cc/Z9LG-SPAC].

29 Roberts, supra note 1.

30 Jennifer A. Doudna & Emmanuelle Charpentier, The New Frontier of Genome Engineering with CRISPR-Cas9, Science, Nov. 28, 2014, at 1258096-6.

31 Kavita Daiya, Violent Belongings: Partition, Gender, and National Culture in Postcolonial India 201 (2008).

32 See generally Nikolas Rose, Professor of Sociology at King’s Coll. London, Molecular Biopolitics, Somatic Ethics and the Spirit of Biocapital, Lecture at the Social Theory and Health Annual Lecture (Oct. 12, 2006), in 5 Soc. Theory & Health 3–29 (2007).

33 Stern, supra note 1.

34 Kaufman, Jay, Statistics, Adjusted Statistics and Maladjusted Statistics, 43 Am. J.L. & Med. 193 (2017).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

35 See Charles A. Murray & Richard Hernstein, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (1994); Nicholas Wade, A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes, Race and Human History (2014).

36 Race: The Power of an Illusion (WGBH television broadcast Apr. 24, 2003).

37 Stern, supra note 1.

38 Birth of a Nation (D.W. Griffith, 1915).