1 M. KATZ, THE IRONY OF EARLY SCHOOL REFORM 215 (1968).

2 Id.

3 Id. at 181.

4 See, e.g., Wilkerson, , The Failure of Schools Serving the Black and Puerto Rican Poor, in SCHOOLS AGAINST CHILDREN 93, 109 (Rubinstein, A. ed. 1970)Google Scholar.

5 See I. HARRIS, EMOTIONAL BLOCKS TO LEARNING: A STUDY OF THE REASONS FOR FAILURE IN SCHOOL 24, 36-38 (1962).

6 Gates, , The Role of Personality Maladjustment in Reading Disability, in CHILDREN WITH READING PROBLEMS 80, 85 (Natchez, G. ed. 1968)Google Scholar.

7 See, e.g., P. FREIRE, PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED (1971); SCHOOLS AGAINST CHILDREN (A. Rubinstein ed. 1970).

8 I. HARRIS, supra note 5, at 51.

9 Id. at 36.

10 See infra text accompanying note 33.

11 E.g., Rose, , What Should a Biochemistry of Learning and Memory be About?, 6 NEUROSCIENCE 811 (1981)Google Scholar; cf Inoue, Akimoto, Hashimoto & Yamasaki, Alterations in Biodistribution of[3H]Ro 15-1788 in Mice by Acute Stress: Possible Changes in In Vivo Binding Availability of Brain Benzodiazepine Receptor, 12 INT'L J. NUCLEAR MED. & BIOLOGY 369 (1985)Google Scholar.

12 P. SCHRAG & D. DIVOKY, THE MYTH OF THE HYPERACTIVE CHILD AND OTHER MEANS OF CHILD CONTROL 6 (1975).

13 id.

14 See Peterson, Great Expectations: Collaboration Between the Brain Sciences and Education, AM. BIOLOGY TCHR., Feb. 1984, at 74, 74-80; see generally L. HART, HUMAN BRAIN AND HUMAN LEARNING (1983); Chall & Peterson, The Influence of Neuroscience upon Educational Practice, in THE BRAIN, COGNITION, AND EDUCATION 287 (S. Friedman, K. Klivington & R. Peterson eds. 1986); Epstein, Developmental Biology and Disorders of Reading, in READING DISORDERS (R. Malatesha & P. Aaron eds. 1982); Mednick, & Volavka, , Biology and Crime, in CRIME AND INJUSTICE: AN ANNUAL REVIEW OF RESEARCH 2 (1980)Google Scholar.

15 E.g., Allen, , Twin Studies of Affective Illness, 33 ARCHIVES GEN. PSYCHIATRY 1476 (1976)Google Scholar; Graham, & Stevenson, , A Twin Study of Genetic Influences on Behavioral Deviance, 24 J. AM. ACAD. CHILD PSYCHIATRY 33 (1985)Google Scholar; Shields, , Personality Differences and Neurotic Traits in Normal Twin School-Children, 45 EUGENICS REV. 213 (1954)Google Scholar; Shields, Polygenic Influences, in CHILD PSYCHIATRY: MODERN APPROACHES 22 (M. Rutter & L. Hersov eds. 1977).

16 E.g., Heston, , Psychiatric Disorders in Foster Home Reared Children of Schizophrenic Mothers, 112 BRIT. J. PSYCHIATRY 819 (1966)Google Scholar; Wender, , Rosenthal, , Kety, , Schulsinger, & Welner, , Cross Fostering: A Research Strategy for Clarifying the Role of Genetic and Experiential Factors in the Etiology of Schizophrenia, 30 ARCHIVES GEN. PSYCHIATRY 121 (1974)Google Scholar.

17 E.g., Cloninger & Gotteman, Genetic and Environmental Factors in Antisocial Behavior Disorders, in CAUSES OF CRIME: NEW BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES 92 (S. Mednick, T. Moffitt & S. Stack eds. 1987); Gottesman, & Shields, , A Critical Review of Recent Adoption, Twin, and Family Studies of Schizophrenia: Behavioral Genetics Perspectives, 2 SCHIZOPHRENIA BULL. 360 (1976)Google Scholar; McGuffin & Gottesman, Genetic Influences on Normal and Abnormal Development, in CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHIATRY: MODERN APPROACHES 17, 26 (M. Rutter & L. Hersov 2d ed. 1985).

18 McGuffin & Gottesman, supra note 17, at 28. See infra text accompanying notes 26-33.

19 See infra text accompanying notes 34-39.

20 See infra text accompanying notes 41-43.

21 See Torgerson, , Sampling Problems in Twin Research, 21 J. PSYCHIATRIC RES. 385 (1987)Google Scholar.

22 See D. NELKIN & L. TANCREDI, DANGEROUS DIAGNOSTICS: THE SOCIAL POWER OF BIOLOGICAL INFORMATION 28 (1989); Weissman, , Merikangas, , John, , Wickramaratne, , Prusoff, & Kidd, , Family-Genetic Studies of Psychiatric Disorders, 43 ARCHIVES GEN. PSYCHIATRY 1104 (1986)Google Scholar.

23 See Goldstein & Brown, Genetic Aspects of Disease, in HARRISON's PRINCIPLES OF INTERNAL MEDICINE 285, 286-87 (E. Braunwald, K. Isselbacher, R. Peterdorf, J. Wilson, J. Martin & A. Fauci eds. 1987).

24 See infra text accompanying notes 40-53.

25 D. NELKIN & L. TANCREDI, supra note 22, at 116-17.

26 See generally CHILDREN WITH READING PROBLEMS (G. Natchez ed. 1968).

27 See Decker, & Bender, , Converging Evidence for Multiple Genetic Forms of Reading Disability, 33 BRAIN & LANGUAGE 197 (1988)Google Scholar (reviewing the literature on this subject).

28 E.g., Defries, , Fulker, & LaBuda, , Evidence for a Genetic Aetiology in Reading Disability of Twins, 329 NATURE 537 (1987)Google Scholar; Stevenson, , Graham, , Fredman, & McLaughlin, , A Twin Study of Genetic Influences on Reading and Spelling Ability and Disability, 28 J. CHILD PSYCHOLOGY & PSYCHIATRY 229 (1987)Google Scholar.

29 E.g., Smith, , Kimberling, , Pennington, & Lubs, , Specific Reading Disability: Identification of an Inherited Form Through Linkage Analysis, 219 SCIENCE 1345 (1983)Google Scholar.

30 See Vellutino, Dyslexia, SCI. AM., Mar. 1987, at 34, 40.

31 Id. See also Pennington, , Annotation: The Genetics of Dyslexia, 31 J. CHILD PSYCHOLOGY & PSYCHIATRY 193 (1990)Google Scholar; Smith, , Pennington, & Kimberling, , Familial Dyslexia: Use of Genetic Linkage Data to Define Subtypes, 29 J. AM. ACAD. CHILD & ADOLESCENT PSYCHIATRY 204 (1990)Google Scholar.

32 See Smith, Pennington & Kimberling, supra note 31, at 204.

33 See Pennington, & Smith, , Genetic Influences on Learning Disabilities: An Update, 56 J. CONSULTING & CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 817 (1988)Google Scholar; Pennington, & Smith, , Genetic Influences on Learning Liabilities and Speech and Language Disorders, 54 CHILD DEV. 369 (1983)Google Scholar.

34 G. COLES, THE LEARNING MYSTIQUE 23-24, 43-44 (1988).

35 AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASS'N, DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS (3d ed. 1980) [hereinafter DSM III].

36 See Biederman, , Munir, & Knee, , Conduct and Oppositional Disorder in Clinically Referred Children with Attention Deficit Disorder: A Controlled Family Study, 26 J . AM. ACAD. CHILD & ADOLESCENT PSYCHIATRY 724 (1987)Google Scholar; Biederman, , Munir, , Knee, , Habelow, , Armentano, , Autor, , Hoge, & Waternaux, , A Family Study of Patients with Attention Deficit Disorder and Normal Controls, 20 J. PSYCHIATRIC RES. 263 (1986)Google Scholar.

37 See Klerman, , The Significance of the DSM III in American Psychiatry, in INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON DSM III 3 (1983)Google Scholar.

38 Greenberg, & Erickson, , Pharmacotherapy of Children and Adolescents, in THE HANDBOOK OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY 1023, 1025 (Reynolds, C. & Gutkin, T. eds. 1982)Google Scholar.

39 AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASS'N, DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS 42-43, 93-95 (rev. 3d ed. 1987).

40 Rutter, , Macdonald, & Couteur, Le, Genetic Factors in Child Psychiatric Disorders — II: Empirical Findings, 31 J. CHILD PSYCHOLOGY & PSYCHIATRY 39, 47 (1990)Google Scholar.

41 Londer, Cracking the Code, CHILD, Jan.-Feb. 1988, at 44.

42 Id. at 44-46.

43 Id. at 102-03.

44 Kagan, , Resnick, & Shidman, , Biological Bases of Childhood Shyness, 240 SCIENCE 167 (1988)Google Scholar.

45 Id. at 171.

47 Temperamental Research, HARV. MAC, Jan.-Feb. 1988, at 6.

48 See, e.g., Drexler, Nature vs. Nurture, Boston Globe, Dec. 3, 1989, at 16 (Magazine).

49 Id.

50 See, e.g., Reich, , Biological Marker Studies in Alcoholism, 318 NEW ENG.J. MED. 180, 180-81 (1988)Google Scholar.

51 See generally D. NELKIN, SELLING SCIENCE 29-30 (1987) [hereinafter SELLING SCIENCE].

52 Are Boys Better at Math?, N.Y. Times, Dec. 7, 1980, at 102, col. 1 (quoting Camilla Benbow, Johns Hopkins Univ.).

53 Golden, The Gender Factor in Math, TIME, Dec. 15, 1980, at 57.

54 D. NELKIN & L. TANCREDI, supra note 22, at 22.

55 Id. at 22-23.

56 M. FOUCAULT, DISCIPLINE AND PUNISH 183-84, 187 (A. Sheridan trans. 1977).

57 Id. at 184.

58 Id. at 304.

59 M. DOUGLAS, HOW INSTITUTIONS THINK 63 (1986).

60 Id. at 92.

61 See generally H. MEHAN, A. HERTWECK & J. MEIHLS, HANDICAPPING THE HANDICAPPED: DECISION MAKING IN STUDENTS’ EDUCATIONAL CAREERS (1986) (describing schools’ reluctance to mainstream children in order to continue their eligibility for federal funding). For further discussion of this institutional tendency, see infra notes 126 & 130 and accompanying text.

62 For example, in Mississippi, it is estimated that one-third of all first-graders will not graduate from high school. 1988 statistics indicate that approximately four million American adults are illiterate. Ex Machina: I.B.M. Plan Stirs Critics, N.Y. Times, Jan. 6, 1991, at A49, col. 1 (assessing the success of I.B.M.'s “Writing to Read” Program).

63 See Galbraith, , Education and National Development, in NATIONAL COMM. FOR SUPPORT OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS, EDUCATION AND POVERTY 3 (1964)Google Scholar, reprintedin EDUC. DIG., NOV. 1964, at 1, 3 (“[We] reduce to the absolute minimum the unemployable in a highly technical culture … through education because the absence of education is the cause of unemployment.“).

64 For a historical discussion of this tendency, see M. KATZ, supra note 1, at 210-11.

65 Brown v. Board of Educ, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

66 See Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, 20 U.S.C. §§ 1400, 1402 (1988) (the Act provides funds to states that satisfy certain requirements in meeting the needs of mentally retarded children).

67 See SELLING SCIENCE, supra note 51, at 21-24.

68 Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, Pub. L. No. 94-142, 89 Stat. 773, 777 (codified as amended in scattered sections of 20 U.S.C). See H. MEHAN, A. HERTWECK, & J. MEIHLS, supra note 61, at 33.

69 NATIONAL COMM'N ON EXCELLENCE IN EDUC, A NATION AT RISK (1983) [hereinafter A NATION AT RISK]. See also I. SHOR, CULTURE WARS: SCHOOL AND SOCIETY IN THE CONSERVATORY RESTORATION 1969-1984 104-08 (1986).

70 A NATION AT RISK, supra note 69, at 5, 7.

71 Id. at 5.

72 See, e.g. ALA. CODE § 16-3-15 (1990) (requiring particular courses, such as U.S. history, English and physical education, to be taught in elementary schools); ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. § 15-752(B) (1989) (requiring any school district containing students with limited proficiency in English to provide bilingual education); KY. REV. STAT. ANN. § 156.445 (Michie/Bobbs-Merrill 1990) (requiring that only texts approved by the State Department of Education Textbook Commission be used as basal texts).

73 See, e.g., F. CHERNOW & C. CHERNOW, CLASSROOM DISCIPLINE SURVIVAL GUIDE FOR MIDDLE SCHOOL/JUNIOR HIGH TEACHERS (1989) (in discussing ways for teachers to maintain a disciplined and orderly classroom, emphasizes the goals of efficiency and reduction of teacher frustration).

74 See Brandt, On Misuse of Testing: A Conversation with George Madaus, EDUC. LEADERSHIP, Apr. 1989, at 26. Madaus argues that placing heavy emphasis on test scores “corrupt[s] the process.” He suggests that reliance on testing makes the test results unreliable; that is, when test results are the focus of advancement, education no longer entails learning a curriculum, but rather passing a standardized test.

75 See, e.g., Gilford, , The Political Economy of Testing and Opportunity Allocation, 59 J. NEGRO EDUC. 58 (1990)Google Scholar.

76 See infra text accompanying notes 83-86.

77 nSee, e.g., S. GOULD, THE MISMEASURE OF MAN (1981); D. KEVLES, IN THE NAME OF EUGENICS: GENETICS AND THE USES OF HUMAN HEREDITY (1985); N. STEPAN, THE IDEA OF RACE IN SCIENCE: GREAT BRITAIN 1800-1960 (1982).

78 A. BINET, LES IDEES MODERNES SUR LES ENFANTS 100 (1909).

79 Id

80 D. KEVLES, supra note 77, at 80-82; N. STEPAN, supra note 77, at 131.

81 See D. KEVLES, supra note 77, at 82.

82 See STEDMAN's MEDICAL DICTIONARY 1165 (4th unabridged ed. 1976).

83 D. KEVLES, supra note 77, at 82-84, 94-95; N. STEPAN, supra note 77, at 131-34, 183-88.

84 See generally N. BLOCK & G. DWORKIN, THE IQ, CONTROVERSY: CRITICAL READINGS (1976); H. EYSENCK, THE IQ, ARGUMENT: RACE, INTELLIGENCE AND EDUCATION (1971); L. KAMIN, THE SCIENCE AND POLITICS OF IQ,( 1974); Jensen, , How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement*, 39 HARV. EDUC. REV. 1 (1969)Google Scholar.

85 H. EYSENCK, supra note 84, at 14.

86 Reschly, Assessing Mild Mental Retardation: The Influence of Adaptive Behavior, Sociocultural Status, and Prospects for Nonbiased Assessment, in THE HANDBOOK OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 38, at 209, 212.

87 Boozer, , An Alternative to Intelligence Testing for Minority Children, 47 J. NEGRO EDUC. 415 (1978)Google Scholar.

88 For example, they tried to eliminate culture-loaded questions and to develop techniques for “norming” exams, by using sample groups that represented the population to be tested. See, e.g., id., at 415.

89 P. SCHRAG & D. DIVOKY, supra note 12, at 116.

90 Id. at 129-30.

91 Id. at 179.

92 Jensen, , Objectivity and the Genetics of IQj A Reply to Steven Selden, 66 PHI DELTA KAPPAN 284, 286 (1984)Google Scholar.

93 Gill, , Jardine, & Martin, , Further Evidence for Genetic Influences on Educational Achievement, 55 BRIT. J. EDUC. PSYCHOLOGY 240 (1985)Google Scholar.

94 Id. at 250 (estimating percentages of innate intelligence). See also Eysenck, , A New View of Human Intelligence, 56 BRIT. J. EDUC. PSYCHOLOGY 106, 108 (1986)Google Scholar (interpreting the Gill, Jardine & Martin study, supra note 93). But see Richardson, , Genotype-Phenotype Relations in Models of Educational Achievement: A Response to Gillet al., 57 BRIT. J. EDUC. PSYCHOLOGY 1, 8 (1987)Google Scholar (questioning the mathematical model of genotype-phenotype interaction used by Gill, Jardine & Martin, supra note 93).

95 D. NELKIN & L. TANCREDI, supra note 22, at 116.

96 Hammil, , Leigh, , McNutt, & Larsen, A New Definition of Learning Disabilities, 4 LEARNING DISABILITY Q. 336, 339-40 (1981)Google Scholar.

97 D. NELKIN & L. TANCREDI, supra note 22, at 116.

98 See supra text accompanying notes 29-39.

99 Orton, , An Impediment to Learning to Read — A Neurological Explanation of the Reading Disability, 28 SCHOOL & SOC'Y 286, 288 (1928)Google Scholar.

100 For a history of devices such as BEAM-scans and CEEGs, see G. COLES, supra note 34, at 70-90. See also Chall & Peterson, supra note 14, at 292 (since the mid-1970s, neurological research has replaced psychological and educational research in studies of the causes of reading disabilities).

101 D. NELKIN & L. TANCREDI, supra note 22, at 125-26.

102 See NATIONAL INST. MENTAL HEALTH, U.S. DEP't OF HEALTH & HUM. SERVS., APPROACHING THE 2 1ST CENTURY: OPPORTUNITIES FOR NIMH NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH, REPORT TO CONGRESS ON THE DECADE OF THE BRAIN 25 (1988) [hereinafter NIMH].

103 Id. at 25-26.

104 Id. at 26.

105 See Volkow & Tancredi, Biological Correlates of Mental Activity: Studies with PET, to be published in 148 AM. J. PSYCHIATRY 439 (\99\); see also, Andreasen, , Brain Imaging: Applications in Psychiatry, 239 SCIENCE 1381, 1387 (1988)Google Scholar.

106 Volkow & Tancredi, supra note 105.

107 Gleick, Brain at Work Revealed Through New Imagery, N.Y. Times, Aug. 18, 1987, at CI, col. 1.

108 id. at 12, col. 2.

109 These tests include the Luria-Nebraska Neuro-Psychological Battery. See C. GOLDEN, DIAGNOSIS AND REHABILITATION IN CLINICAL NEURO-PSYCHOLOGY 115-20 (1981).

110 See id., at 115-20.

111 NIMH, supra note 102, at 27.

112 Id.

113 See Chall & Peterson, supra note 14, at 300.

114 See A. PAI, FOUNDATIONS OF GENETICS: A SCIENCE FOR SOCIETY 92 (2d ed. 1985).

115 Id. at 72.

116 Id. at 92.

117 See, e.g., Olson, , Wise, , Conners, , Rack, & Fulker, , Specific Deficits in Component Reading and Language Skills: Genetic and Environmental Influences, 22 J. LEARNING DISABIUTIES 339, 346-47 (1989)Google Scholar.

118 Cf. S. REISER, MEDICINE AND THE REIGN OF TECHNOLOGY 189 (1978) (“Precision in medical diagnosis seems to depend on three characteristics: the intrinsic accuracy of the measurement or test, the constancy of the phenomena being measured, the ability of the observer to interpret and record the phenomena.“).

119 Tversky, & Kahneman, , Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases, 185 SCIENCE 1124 (1974)Google Scholar.

120 Id. at 1130.

121 Id. at 1127.

122 See Faust, & Ziskin, , The Expert Witness in Psychology and Psychiatry, 241 SCIENCE 31, 33 (1988)Google Scholar.

123 Id. at 34.

124 Cf. Field, , Testing for AIDS: Uses and Abuses, 16 AM. J.L. & MED. 34, 39–43 (1990)Google Scholar (discussing the difference between a clinically acceptable rate of false positives showing HIV infection when screening a population and the effects of a false positive result on an individual).

125 See supra text accompanying notes 80-91 for a history of testing in schools.

126 See Rosner, , Health Care for the “Truly Needy“: Nineteenth Century Origins of the Concept, 60 MILBANK Q. 355 (1982)Google Scholar. Rosner suggests how concepts of worthiness shift with institutional interests. In the 19th century, physicians adopted narrow definitions of “worthiness” to limit the use of charity health services. Trustees of charity hospitals, however, eager to promote the usefulness of such institutions, developed broad criteria for “worthiness” to increase their patient pool. Id. at 357. In the 1980s concepts of worthiness helped qualify victims for public assistance.

127 See D. NELKIN & L. TANCREDI, supra note 22, at 117-21 (describing instances of incorrect or over-medication of students in response to their behavioral problems).

128 See Greenberg & Erickson, supra note 38, at 1030-31 (discussing these and other medications).

129 See Algonzzine, , Christenson, & Ysseldyke, , Probabilities Associated with the Referral to Placement Process, 5 TCHR. EDUC. & SPECIAL EDUC. 19 (1982)Google Scholar (discussing educators’ tolerance for learning disabilities); Anderson, , Cronin, & Miller, , Referral Reasons for Learning Disabled Students, 23 PSYCHOLOGY IN THE SCHOOLS 388, 391-92 (1986)Google Scholar (referral statements reviewed by the authors emphasized disruptive classroom behavior in 58% of student referrals).

130 See Kavale, & Forness, , The Far Side of Heterogeneity: A Critical Analysis of Empirical Subtyping Research in Learning Disabilities, 20 J . LEARNING DISABILITIES 374, 380 (1987)Google Scholar.

131 See D. STUSS & D. BENSON, THE FRONTAL LOBES (1986); Phelps, , Kuhl, & Mazziotta, , Metabolic Mapping of the Brain's Response to Visual Stimulation: Studies in Humans, 211 SCIENCE 1445 (1981)Google Scholar; cf Baker, , Grigg, & Noorden, Von, Effects of Visual Deprivations and Strabismus on Response of Neurons in the Visual Cortex of the Monkey, Including Studies on the Striate and Prestriate Cortex in the Normal Animals, 66 BRAIN RESOURCE BULL. 185 (1974)Google Scholar.

132 Curlender v. Bio-Science Laboratories, 106 Cal. App. 3d 811, 165 Cal. Rptr. 477 (1980). See also Olson v. Western Airlines 143 Cal. App. 3d 1, 191 Cal. Rptr. 502 (1983) (negligently administered pre-employment test diagnosed employee as pre-diabetic).

133 McDonnell v. Hunter, 612 F. Supp. 1122, 1127 (D. Iowa 1985).

134 See generally Clothier, Meeting the Challenge to Privacy Rights by Employer Drug Testing: The Right of Nondisclosure, 1988 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 213.

135 Skinner v. Ry. Labor Executives’ Ass'n, 489 U.S. 602, 617 (1989).

136 Id. at 626 & n.7.

137 See, e.g., Redman Homes, Inc. v. Employment Div., 97 Or. App. 653, 777 P.2d 414 (1989) (blanket drug testing may be reasonable grounds for quitting work).

138 National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab, 489 U.S. 656, 670-72 (1989); American Fed'n of Gov't Employees v. Skinner, 885 F.2d 884, 891-92 (1989), cert, denied, 110 S. Ct. 1960 (1990).

139 The issue of mandatory testing has recently emerged with respect to AIDS. Only the state of Georgia has approved mandatory HIV testing in schools for both students and teachers where there is reasonable cause to believe that the individual is infected. Georgia Education Board Approves Mandatory Tests, 2 AIDS Policy & Law (BNA) No. 11, at 3 (June 17, 1987). Refusal to be tested can result in teacher dismissal and alternative student placement. Id.

140 Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424 (1971).

141 See Miller, , Comment: Genetic Testing and Insurance Classification: National Action Can Prevent Discrimination Based on “The Luck of the Genetic Draw,” 93 DICK. L. REV. 729 (1988)Google Scholar.

142 G. COLES, supra note 34, at 14.

143 Id. at xvii.

144 Id. at 9.

145 Id. at 187-88.

146 Id. at xv, xviii, 187-88.