Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T11:24:51.825Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Swine influenza vaccines: current status and future perspectives

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 May 2010

Wenjun Ma  and
Jürgen A. Richt
Wenjun Ma
Affiliation:
Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
Jürgen A. Richt*
Affiliation:
Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: jricht@ksu.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Swine influenza is an important contagious disease in pigs caused by influenza A viruses. Although only three subtypes of influenza A viruses, H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2, predominantly infect pigs worldwide, it is still a big challenge for vaccine manufacturers to produce efficacious vaccines for the prevention and control of swine influenza. Swine influenza viruses not only cause significant economic losses for the swine industry, but are also important zoonotic pathogens. Vaccination is still one of the most important and effective strategies to prevent and control influenza for both the animal and human population. In this review, we will discuss the current status of swine influenza worldwide as well as current and future options to control this economically important swine disease.

Keywords

swine influenzavaccines
Type
Review Article
Information
Animal Health Research Reviews , Volume 11 , Issue 1: Influenza in Animals , June 2010 , pp. 81 - 96
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Antonis, AF, Bruschke, CJ, Rueda, P, Maranga, L, Casal, JI, Vela, C, Hilgers, LA, Belt, PB, Weerdmeester, K, Carrondo, MJ and Langeveld, JP (2006). A novel recombinant virus-like particle vaccine for prevention of porcine parvovirus-induced reproductive failure. Vaccine 24: 5481–5490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baca-Estrada, ME, Liang, X, Babiuk, LA and Yoo, D (1995). Induction of mucosal immunity in cotton rats to haemagglutinin-esterase glycoprotein of bovine coronavirus by recombinant adenovirus. Immunology 86: 134–140.Google Scholar
Belshe, RB (2004). Current status of live attenuated influenza virus vaccine in the US. Virus Research 103: 177–185.Google Scholar
Bennink, JR, Yewdell, JW and Gerhard, W (1982). A viral polymerase involved in recognition of influenza virus-infected cells by a cytotoxic T-cell clone. Nature 296: 75–76.Google Scholar
Bennink, JR, Yewdell, JW, Smith, GL and Moss, B (1987). Anti-influenza virus cytotoxic T lymphocytes recognize the three viral polymerases and a nonstructural protein: responsiveness to individual viral antigens is major histocompatibility complex controlled. Journal of Virology 61: 1098–1102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berglund, P, Fleeton, MN, Smerdou, C and Liljestrom, P (1999). Immunization with recombinant Semliki Forest virus induces protection against influenza challenge in mice. Vaccine 17: 497–507.Google Scholar
Bikour, MH, Cornaglia, E and Elazhary, Y (1996). Evaluation of a protective immunity induced by an inactivated influenza H3N2 vaccine after an intratracheal challenge of pigs. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 60: 312–314.Google ScholarPubMed
Bisht, H, Roberts, A, Vogel, L, Bukreyev, A, Collins, PL, Murphy, BR, Subbarao, K and Moss, B (2004). Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike protein expressed by attenuated vaccinia virus protectively immunizes mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101: 6641–6646.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breathnach, CC, Clark, HJ, Clark, RC, Olsen, CW, Townsend, HG and Lunn, DP (2006). Immunization with recombinant modified vaccinia Ankara (rMVA) constructs encoding the HA or NP gene protects ponies from equine influenza virus challenge. Vaccine 24: 1180–1190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bright, RA, Carter, DM, Daniluk, S, Toapanta, FR, Ahmad, A, Gavrilov, V, Massare, M, Pushko, P, Mytle, N, Rowe, T, Smith, G and Ross, TM (2007). Influenza virus-like particles elicit broader immune responses than whole virion inactivated influenza virus or recombinant hemagglutinin. Vaccine 25: 3871–3878.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bright, RA, Carter, DM, Crevar, CJ, Toapanta, FR, Steckbeck, JD, Cole, KS, Kumar, NM, Pushko, P, Smith, G, Tumpey, TM and Ross, TM (2008). Cross-clade protective immune responses to influenza viruses with H5N1 HA and NA elicited by an influenza virus-like particle. PLoS One 3: e1501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, GB and McMillen, JK (1994). MaxiVac-Flu: evaluation of the safety and efficacy of a swine influenza. Proceedings of the American Association of Swine Practitioners 25: 37–39.Google Scholar
Brown, IH (2000). The epidemiology and evolution of influenza viruses in pigs. Veterinary Microbiology 74: 29–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, IH (2008). The role of pigs in interspecies transmission. In: Klenk, HD, Matrosovich, MN and Stech, J (eds) Avian Influenza. Basel, Karger: Monogr Virol, pp. 88–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, IH, Ludwig, S, Olsen, CW, Hannoun, C, Scholtissek, C, Hinshaw, VS, Harris, PA, McCauley, JW, Strong, I and Alexander, DJ (1997). Antigenic and genetic analyses of H1N1 influenza A viruses from European pigs. Journal of General Virology 78: 553–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, IH, Harris, PA, McCauley, JW and Alexander, DJ (1998). Multiple genetic reassortment of avian and human influenza A viruses in European pigs, resulting in the emergence of an H1N2 virus of novel genotype. Journal of General Virology 79: 2947–2955.Google Scholar
Carrat, F and Flahault, A (2007). Influenza vaccine: the challenge of antigenic drift. Vaccine 25: 6852–6862.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castrucci, MR, Donatelli, I, Sidoli, L, Barigazzi, G, Kawaoka, Y and Webster, RG (1993). Genetic reassortment between avian and human influenza A viruses in Italian pigs. Virology 193: 503–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chambers, TM, Hinshaw, VS, Kawaoka, Y, Easterday, BC and Webster, RG (1991). Influenza viral infection of swine in the United States 1988–1989. Archives of Virology 116: 261–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chambers, TM, Holland, RE, Tudor, LR, Townsend, HG, Cook, A, Bogdan, J, Lunn, DP, Hussey, S, Whitaker-Dowling, P, Youngner, JS, Sebring, RW, Penner, SJ and Stiegler, GL (2001). A new modified live equine influenza virus vaccine: phenotypic stability, restricted spread and efficacy against heterologous virus challenge. Equine Veterinary Journal 33: 630–636.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, CY, Huang, CC, Huang, TS, Deng, MC, Jong, MH and Wang, FI (2006). Isolation and characterization of a Sagiyama virus from domestic pigs. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 18: 156–161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chanturiya, AN, Basanez, G, Schubert, U, Henklein, P, Yewdell, JW and Zimmerberg, J (2004). PB1-F2, an influenza A virus-encoded proapoptotic mitochondrial protein, creates variably sized pores in planar lipid membranes. Journal of virology 78: 6304–6312.Google Scholar
Chen, MW, Cheng, TJ, Huang, Y, Jan, JT, Ma, SH, Yu, AL, Wong, CH and Ho, DD (2008). A consensus-hemagglutinin-based DNA vaccine that protects mice against divergent H5N1 influenza viruses. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105: 13538–13543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, Z, Matsuo, K, Asanuma, H, Takahashi, H, Iwasaki, T, Suzuki, Y, Aizawa, C, Kurata, T and Tamura, S (1999a). Enhanced protection against a lethal influenza virus challenge by immunization with both hemagglutinin- and neuraminidase-expressing DNAs. Vaccine 17: 653–659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, Z, Yoshikawa, T, Kadowaki, S, Hagiwara, Y, Matsuo, K, Asanuma, H, Aizawa, C, Kurata, T and Tamura, S (1999b). Protection and antibody responses in different strains of mouse immunized with plasmid DNAs encoding influenza virus haemagglutinin, neuraminidase and nucleoprotein. Journal of General Virology 80: 2559–2564.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conenello, GM, Zamarin, D, Perrone, LA, Tumpey, T and Palese, P (2007). A single mutation in the PB1-F2 of H5N1 (HK/97) and 1918 influenza A viruses contributes to increased virulence. PLoS Pathogenesis 3: 1414–1421.Google ScholarPubMed
Cosma, A, Nagaraj, R, Buhler, S, Hinkula, J, Busch, DH, Sutter, G, Goebel, FD and Erfle, V (2003). Therapeutic vaccination with MVA-HIV-1 nef elicits Nef-specific T-helper cell responses in chronically HIV-1 infected individuals. Vaccine 22: 21–29.Google Scholar
Cosma, A, Nagaraj, R, Staib, C, Diemer, C, Wopfner, F, Schatzl, H, Busch, DH, Sutter, G, Goebel, FD and Erfle, V (2007). Evaluation of modified vaccinia virus Ankara as an alternative vaccine against smallpox in chronically HIV type 1-infected individuals undergoing HAART. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 23: 782–793.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cox, MM and Hollister, JR (2009). FluBlok, a next generation influenza vaccine manufactured in insect cells. Biologicals 37: 182–189.Google Scholar
Cox, NJ and Subbarao, K (1999). Influenza. Lancet 354: 1277–1282.Google Scholar
Cox, RJ, Brokstad, KA and Ogra, P (2004). Influenza virus: immunity and vaccination strategies. Comparison of the immune response to inactivated and live, attenuated influenza vaccines. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 59: 1–15.Google Scholar
Crawford, J, Wilkinson, B, Vosnesensky, A, Smith, G, Garcia, M, Stone, H and Perdue, ML (1999). Baculovirus-derived hemagglutinin vaccines protect against lethal influenza infections by avian H5 and H7 subtypes. Vaccine 17: 2265–2274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickerman, RW, Baker, GJ, Ordonez, JV and Scherer, WF (1973). Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis viremia and antibody responses of pigs and cattle. American Journal of Veterinary Research 34: 357–361.Google Scholar
Drape, RJ, Macklin, MD, Barr, LJ, Jones, S, Haynes, JR and Dean, HJ (2006). Epidermal DNA vaccine for influenza is immunogenic in humans. Vaccine 24: 4475–4481.Google Scholar
Drexler, I, Staib, C and Sutter, G (2004). Modified vaccinia virus Ankara as antigen delivery system: how can we best use its potential? Current Opinion in Biotechnology 15: 506–512.Google Scholar
Dunham, EJ, Dugan, VG, Kaser, EK, Perkins, SE, Brown, IH, Holmes, EC and Taubenberger, JK (2009). Different evolutionary trajectories of European avian-like and classical swine H1N1 influenza A viruses. Journal of Virology 83: 5485–5494.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elmowalid, GA, Qiao, M, Jeong, SH, Borg, BB, Baumert, TF, Sapp, RK, Hu, Z, Murthy, K and Liang, TJ (2007). Immunization with hepatitis C virus-like particles results in control of hepatitis C virus infection in chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104: 8427–8432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epstein, SL, Stack, A, Misplon, JA, Lo, CY, Mostowski, H, Bennink, J and Subbarao, K (2000). Vaccination with DNA encoding internal proteins of influenza virus does not require CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes: either CD4(+) or CD8(+) T cells can promote survival and recovery after challenge. International Immunology 12: 91–101.Google Scholar
Erdman, MM, Kamrud, KI, Harris, DL and Smith, J (2010). Alphavirus replicon particle vaccines developed for use in humans induce high levels of antibodies to influenza virus hemagglutinin in swine: proof of concept. Vaccine 28: 594–596.Google Scholar
Eriksson, E, Yao, F, Svensjo, T, Winkler, T, Slama, J, Macklin, MD, Andree, C, McGregor, M, Hinshaw, V and Swain, WF (1998). In vivo gene transfer to skin and wound by microseeding. Journal of Surgical Research 78: 85–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fynan, EF, Robinson, HL and Webster, RG (1993). Use of DNA encoding influenza hemagglutinin as an avian influenza vaccine. DNA Cell Biology 12: 785–789.Google Scholar
Gambotto, A, Barratt-Boyes, SM, de Jong, MD, Neumann, G and Kawaoka, Y (2008). Human infection with highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus. Lancet 371: 1464–1475.Google Scholar
Gamvrellis, A, Leong, D, Hanley, JC, Xiang, SD, Mottram, P and Plebanski, M (2004). Vaccines that facilitate antigen entry into dendritic cells. Immunology and Cell Biology 82: 506–516.Google Scholar
Garcia-Sastre, A, Egorov, A, Matassov, D, Brandt, S, Levy, DE, Durbin, JE, Palese, P and Muster, T (1998). Influenza A virus lacking the NS1 gene replicates in interferon-deficient systems. Virology 252: 324–330.Google Scholar
Goonetilleke, NP, McShane, H, Hannan, CM, Anderson, RJ, Brookes, RH and Hill, AV (2003). Enhanced immunogenicity and protective efficacy against Mycobacterium tuberculosis of bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccine using mucosal administration and boosting with a recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara. Journal of Immunology 171: 1602–1609.Google Scholar
Gotch, F, McMichael, A, Smith, G and Moss, B (1987). Identification of viral molecules recognized by influenza-specific human cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Journal of Experimental Medicine 165: 408–416.Google Scholar
Haesebrouck, F, Biront, P, Pensaert, MB and Leunen, J (1985). Epizootics of respiratory tract disease in swine in Belgium due to H3N2 influenza virus and experimental reproduction of disease. American Journal of Veterinary Research 46: 1926–1928.Google Scholar
Haynes, JR (2009). Influenza virus-like particle vaccines. Expert Review of Vaccines 8: 435–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haynes, JR, Dokken, L, Wiley, JA, Cawthon, AG, Bigger, J, Harmsen, AG and Richardson, C (2009). Influenza-pseudotyped Gag virus-like particle vaccines provide broad protection against highly pathogenic avian influenza challenge. Vaccine 27: 530–541.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
He, F, Madhan, S and Kwang, J (2009). Baculovirus vector as a delivery vehicle for influenza vaccines. Expert Review of Vaccines 8: 455–467.Google Scholar
Heinen, PP, de Boer-Luijtze, EA and Bianchi, AT (2001). Respiratory and systemic humoral and cellular immune responses of pigs to a heterosubtypic influenza A virus infection. Journal of General Virology 82: 2697–2707.Google Scholar
Hinshaw, VS, JrBean, WJ, Webster, RG and Easterday, BC (1978). The prevalence of influenza viruses in swine and the antigenic and genetic relatedness of influenza viruses from man and swine. Virology 84: 51–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ichinohe, T, Iwasaki, A and Hasegawa, H (2008). Innate sensors of influenza virus: clues to developing better intranasal vaccines. Expert Review of Vaccines 7: 1435–1445.Google Scholar
Ito, T, Couceiro, JN, Kelm, S, Baum, LG, Krauss, S, Castrucci, MR, Donatelli, I, Kida, H, Paulson, JC, Webster, RG and Kawaoka, Y (1998). Molecular basis for the generation in pigs of influenza A viruses with pandemic potential. Journal of Virology 72: 7367–7373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, AC, SenGupta, SK and Smith, JF (1991). Pathogenesis of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection in mice and hamsters. Veterinary Pathology 28: 410–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jameson, J, Cruz, J and Ennis, FA (1998). Human cytotoxic T-lymphocyte repertoire to influenza A viruses. Journal of Virology 72: 8682–8689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jin, H, Lu, B, Zhou, H, Ma, C, Zhao, J, Yang, CF, Kemble, G and Greenberg, H (2003). Multiple amino acid residues confer temperature sensitivity to human influenza virus vaccine strains (FluMist) derived from cold-adapted A/Ann Arbor/6/60. Virology 306: 18–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jung, K and Chae, C (2004). Phylogenetic analysis of an H1N2 influenza A virus isolated from a pig in Korea. Brief Report. Archives of Virology 149: 1415–1422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kang, SM, Song, JM, Quan, FS and Compans, RW (2009). Influenza vaccines based on virus-like particles. Virus Research 143: 140–146.Google Scholar
Karasin, AI, Olsen, CW and Anderson, GA (2000). Genetic characterization of an H1N2 influenza virus isolated from a pig in Indiana. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 38: 2453–2456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karasin, AI, Landgraf, J, Swenson, S, Erickson, G, Goyal, S, Woodruff, M, Scherba, G, Anderson, G and Olsen, CW (2002). Genetic characterization of H1N2 influenza A viruses isolated from pigs throughout the United States. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 40: 1073–1079.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keating, GM and Noble, S (2003). Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine (Engerix-B): a review of its immunogenicity and protective efficacy against hepatitis B. Drugs 63: 1021–1051.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kida, H, Ito, T, Yasuda, J, Shimizu, Y, Itakura, C, Shortridge, KF, Kawaoka, Y and Webster, RG (1994). Potential for transmission of avian influenza viruses to pigs. Journal of General Virology 75: 2183–2188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, JH and Jacob, J (2009). DNA vaccines against influenza viruses. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 333: 197–210.Google Scholar
JrKing, JC, Cox, MM, Reisinger, K, Hedrick, J, Graham, I and Patriarca, P (2009). Evaluation of the safety, reactogenicity and immunogenicity of FluBlok trivalent recombinant baculovirus-expressed hemagglutinin influenza vaccine administered intramuscularly to healthy children aged 6–59 months. Vaccine 27: 6589–6594.Google Scholar
Kitikoon, P, Nilubol, D, Erickson, BJ, Janke, BH, Hoover, TC, Sornsen, SA and Thacker, EL (2006). The immune response and maternal antibody interference to a heterologous H1N1 swine influenza virus infection following vaccination. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 112: 117–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kreijtz, JH, Suezer, Y, van Amerongen, G, de Mutsert, G, Schnierle, BS, Wood, JM, Kuiken, T, Fouchier, RA, Lower, J, Osterhaus, AD, Sutter, G and Rimmelzwaan, GF (2007). Recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara-based vaccine induces protective immunity in mice against infection with influenza virus H5N1. Journal of Infectious Diseases 195: 1598–1606.Google Scholar
Kreijtz, JH, Suezer, Y, de Mutsert, G, van Amerongen, G, Schwantes, A, van den Brand, JM, Fouchier, RA, Lower, J, Osterhaus, AD, Sutter, G and Rimmelzwaan, GF (2009a). MVA-based H5N1 vaccine affords cross-clade protection in mice against influenza A/H5N1 viruses at low doses and after single immunization. PLoS One 4: e7790.Google Scholar
Kreijtz, JH, Suezer, Y, de Mutsert, G, van den Brand, JM, van Amerongen, G, Schnierle, BS, Kuiken, T, Fouchier, RA, Lower, J, Osterhaus, AD, Sutter, G and Rimmelzwaan, GF (2009b). Preclinical evaluation of a modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA)-based vaccine against influenza A/H5N1 viruses. Vaccine 27: 6296–6299.Google Scholar
Kreijtz, JH, Suezer, Y, de Mutsert, G, van den Brand, JM, van Amerongen, G, Schnierle, BS, Kuiken, T, Fouchier, RA, Lower, J, Osterhaus, AD, Sutter, G and Rimmelzwaan, GF (2009c). Recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara expressing the hemagglutinin gene confers protection against homologous and heterologous H5N1 influenza virus infections in macaques. Journal of Infectious Diseases 199: 405–413.Google Scholar
Kundin, WD (1970). Hong Kong A-2 influenza virus infection among swine during a human epidemic in Taiwan. Nature 228: 857.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landolt, GA and Olsen, CW (2007). Up to new tricks – a review of cross-species transmission of influenza A viruses. Animal Health Research Reviews 8: 1–21.Google Scholar
Larsen, DL and Olsen, CW (2002). Effects of DNA dose, route of vaccination, and coadministration of porcine interleukin-6 DNA on results of DNA vaccination against influenza virus infection in pigs. American Journal of Veterinary Research 63: 653–659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larsen, DL, Karasin, A, Zuckermann, F and Olsen, CW (2000). Systemic and mucosal immune responses to H1N1 influenza virus infection in pigs. Veterinary Microbiology 74: 117–131.Google Scholar
Lekcharoensuk, P, Lager, KM, Vemulapalli, R, Woodruff, M, Vincent, AL and Richt, JA (2006). Novel swine influenza virus subtype H3N1, United States. Emerging Infectious Diseases 12: 787–794.Google Scholar
Liljestrom, P and Garoff, H (1991). A new generation of animal cell expression vectors based on the Semliki Forest virus replicon. Biotechnology (NY) 9: 1356–1361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, J, Bi, Y, Qin, K, Fu, G, Yang, J, Peng, J, Ma, G, Liu, Q, Pu, J and Tian, F (2009). Emergence of European avian influenza virus-like H1N1 swine influenza A viruses in China. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 47: 2643–2646.Google Scholar
Liu, MA, McClements, W, Ulmer, JB, Shiver, J and Donnelly, J (1997). Immunization of non-human primates with DNA vaccines. Vaccine 15: 909–912.Google Scholar
Ma, W, Gramer, M, Rossow, K and Yoon, KJ (2006). Isolation and genetic characterization of new reassortant H3N1 swine influenza virus from pigs in the midwestern United States. Journal of Virology 80: 5092–5096.Google Scholar
Ma, W, Kahn, R and Richt, J (2009a). The pig as a mixing vessel for influenza viruses: Human and veterinary implications. Journal of Molecular and Genetic Medicine 3: 158–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ma, W, Lager, KM, Vincent, AL, Janke, BH, Gramer, MR and Richt, JA (2009b). The Role of Swine in the Generation of Novel Influenza Viruses. Zoonoses and Public Health 56: 326–337.Google Scholar
Maassab, HF (1967). Adaptation and growth characteristics of influenza virus at 25°C. Nature 213: 612–614.Google Scholar
Macklin, MD, McCabe, D, McGregor, MW, Neumann, V, Meyer, T, Callan, R, Hinshaw, VS and Swain, WF (1998). Immunization of pigs with a particle-mediated DNA vaccine to influenza A virus protects against challenge with homologous virus. Journal of Virology 72: 1491–1496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahmood, K, Bright, RA, Mytle, N, Carter, DM, Crevar, CJ, Achenbach, JE, Heaton, PM, Tumpey, TM and Ross, TM (2008). H5N1 VLP vaccine induced protection in ferrets against lethal challenge with highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza viruses. Vaccine 26: 5393–5399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masic, A, Babiuk, LA and Zhou, Y (2009a). Reverse genetics-generated elastase-dependent swine influenza viruses are attenuated in pigs. Journal of General Virology 90: 375–385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masic, A, Booth, JS, Mutwiri, GK, Babiuk, LA and Zhou, Y (2009b). Elastase-dependent live attenuated swine influenza A viruses are immunogenic and confer protection against swine influenza A virus infection in pigs. Journal of Virology 83: 10198–10210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matassov, D, Cupo, A and Galarza, JM (2007). A novel intranasal virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine designed to protect against the pandemic 1918 influenza A virus (H1N1). Viral Immunology 20: 441–452.Google Scholar
McAuley, JL, Hornung, F, Boyd, KL, Smith, AM, McKeon, R, Bennink, J, Yewdell, JW and McCullers, JA (2007). Expression of the 1918 influenza A virus PB1-F2 enhances the pathogenesis of viral and secondary bacterial pneumonia. Cell Host and Microbe 2: 240–249.Google Scholar
McGill, J, Heusel, JW and Legge, KL (2009). Innate immune control and regulation of influenza virus infections. Journal of Leukocyte Biology 86: 803–812.Google Scholar
McMichael, AJ, Gotch, FM and Rothbard, J (1986). HLA B37 determines an influenza A virus nucleoprotein epitope recognized by cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Journal of Experimental Medicine 164: 1397–1406.Google Scholar
McShane, H, Pathan, AA, Sander, CR, Keating, SM, Gilbert, SC, Huygen, K, Fletcher, HA and Hill, AV (2004). Recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara expressing antigen 85A boosts BCG-primed and naturally acquired antimycobacterial immunity in humans. Nature Medicine 10: 1240–1244.Google Scholar
Meghrous, J, Mahmoud, W, Jacob, D, Chubet, R, Cox, M and Kamen, AA (2009). Development of a simple and high-yielding fed-batch process for the production of influenza vaccines. Vaccine 28: 309–316.Google Scholar
Monteil, M, Le Pottier, MF, Ristov, AA, Cariolet, R, L'Hospitalier, R, Klonjkowski, B and Eloit, M (2000). Single inoculation of replication-defective adenovirus-vectored vaccines at birth in piglets with maternal antibodies induces high level of antibodies and protection against pseudorabies. Vaccine 18: 1738–1742.Google Scholar
Moorthy, VS, McConkey, S, Roberts, M, Gothard, P, Arulanantham, N, Degano, P, Schneider, J, Hannan, C, Roy, M, Gilbert, SC, Peto, TE and Hill, AV (2003). Safety of DNA and modified vaccinia virus Ankara vaccines against liver-stage P. falciparum malaria in non-immune volunteers. Vaccine 21: 1995–2002.Google Scholar
Moss, B, Carroll, MW, Wyatt, LS, Bennink, JR, Hirsch, VM, Goldstein, S, Elkins, WR, Fuerst, TR, Lifson, JD, Piatak, M, Restifo, NP, Overwijk, W, Chamberlain, R, Rosenberg, SA and Sutter, G (1996). Host range restricted, non-replicating vaccinia virus vectors as vaccine candidates. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 397: 7–13.Google Scholar
Muller, T, Batza, HJ, Schluter, H, Conraths, FJ and Mettenleiter, TC (2003). Eradication of Aujeszky's disease in Germany. Journal of Veterinary Medicine B, Infectious Diseases and Veterinary Public Health 50: 207–213.Google Scholar
Nguyen, HH, van Ginkel, FW, Vu, HL, McGhee, JR and Mestecky, J (eds) ( 2001). Mechanism of Heterosubtypic Immunity to Influenza A Virus Infection. New York, NY: Elsevier Science.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Neill, RE, Talon, J and Palese, P (1998). The influenza virus NEP (NS2 protein) mediates the nuclear export of viral ribonucleoproteins. EMBO Journal 17: 288–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Okuda, K, Ihata, A, Watabe, S, Okada, E, Yamakawa, T, Hamajima, K, Yang, J, Ishii, N, Nakazawa, M, Ohnari, K, Nakajima, K and Xin, KQ (2001). Protective immunity against influenza A virus induced by immunization with DNA plasmid containing influenza M gene. Vaccine 19: 3681–3691.Google Scholar
Olsen, CW (2000). DNA vaccination against influenza viruses: a review with emphasis on equine and swine influenza. Veterinary Microbiology 74: 149–164.Google Scholar
Olsen, CW (2002). The emergence of novel swine influenza viruses in North America. Virus Research 85: 199–210.Google Scholar
Olsen, CW, Carey, S, Hinshaw, L and Karasin, AI (2000). Virologic and serologic surveillance for human, swine and avian influenza virus infections among pigs in the north-central United States. Archives of Virology 145: 1399–1419.Google Scholar
Ouchi, A, Nerome, K, Kanegae, Y, Ishida, M, Nerome, R, Hayashi, K, Hashimoto, T, Kaji, M, Kaji, Y and Inaba, Y (1996). Large outbreak of swine influenza in southern Japan caused by reassortant (H1N2) influenza viruses: its epizootic background and characterization of the causative viruses. Journal of General Virology 77: 1751–1759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oveissi, S, Omar, AR, Yusoff, K, Jahanshiri, F and Hassan, SS (2009). DNA vaccine encoding avian influenza virus H5 and Esat-6 of Mycobacterium tuberculosis improved antibody responses against AIV in chickens. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1016/j.cimid.2009.08.004.Google Scholar
Paillot, R, Hannant, D, Kydd, JH and Daly, JM (2006). Vaccination against equine influenza: quid novi? Vaccine 24: 4047–4061.Google Scholar
Pensaert, M, Ottis, K, Vandeputte, J, Kaplan, MM and Bachmann, PA (1981). Evidence for the natural transmission of influenza A virus from wild ducts to swine and its potential importance for man. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 59: 75–78.Google Scholar
Perrone, LA, Ahmad, A, Veguilla, V, Lu, X, Smith, G, Katz, JM, Pushko, P and Tumpey, TM (2009). Intranasal vaccination with 1918 influenza virus-like particles protects mice and ferrets from lethal 1918 and H5N1 influenza virus challenge. Journal of Virology 83: 5726–5734.Google Scholar
Powers, DC, McElhaney, JE, JrFlorendo, OA, Manning, MC, Upshaw, CM, Bentley, DW and Wilkinson, BE (1997). Humoral and cellular immune responses following vaccination with purified recombinant hemagglutinin from influenza A (H3N2) virus. Journal of Infectious Diseases 175: 342–351.Google Scholar
Pushko, P, Parker, M, Ludwig, GV, Davis, NL, Johnston, RE and Smith, JF (1997). Replicon-helper systems from attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus: expression of heterologous genes in vitro and immunization against heterologous pathogens in vivo. Virology 239: 389–401.Google Scholar
Pushko, P, Tumpey, TM, Bu, F, Knell, J, Robinson, R and Smith, G (2005). Influenza virus-like particles comprised of the HA, NA, and M1 proteins of H9N2 influenza virus induce protective immune responses in BALB/c mice. Vaccine 23: 5751–5759.Google Scholar
Qi, X and Lu, CP (2006). Genetic characterization of novel reassortant H1N2 influenza A viruses isolated from pigs in southeastern China. Archives of Virology 151: 2289–2299.Google Scholar
Quan, FS, Huang, C, Compans, RW and Kang, SM (2007). Virus-like particle vaccine induces protective immunity against homologous and heterologous strains of influenza virus. Journal of Virology 81: 3514–3524.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramirez, JC, Gherardi, MM, Rodriguez, D and Esteban, M (2000). Attenuated modified vaccinia virus Ankara can be used as an immunizing agent under conditions of preexisting immunity to the vector. Journal of Virology 74: 7651–7655.Google Scholar
Rayner, JO, Dryga, SA and Kamrud, KI (2002). Alphavirus vectors and vaccination. Reviews in Medical Virology 12: 279–296.Google Scholar
Reay, PA, Jones, IM, Gotch, FM, McMichael, AJ and Brownlee, GG (1989). Recognition of the PB1, neuraminidase, and matrix proteins of influenza virus A/NT/60/68 by cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Virology 170: 477–485.Google Scholar
Reisinger, KS, Block, SL, Lazcano-Ponce, E, Samakoses, R, Esser, MT, Erick, J, Puchalski, D, Giacoletti, KE, Sings, HL, Lukac, S, Alvarez, FB and Barr, E (2007). Safety and persistent immunogenicity of a quadrivalent human papillomavirus types 6, 11, 16, 18 L1 virus-like particle vaccine in preadolescents and adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 26: 201–209.Google Scholar
Richt, JA, Lekcharoensuk, P, Lager, KM, Vincent, AL, Loiacono, CM, Janke, BH, Wu, WH, Yoon, KJ, Webby, RJ, Solorzano, A and Garcia-Sastre, A (2006). Vaccination of pigs against swine influenza viruses by using an NS1-truncated modified live-virus vaccine. Journal of Virology 80: 11009–11018.Google Scholar
Rimmelzwaan, GF and Sutter, G (2009). Candidate influenza vaccines based on recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara. Expert Review of Vaccines 8: 447–454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, TM, Mahmood, K, Crevar, CJ, Schneider-Ohrum, K, Heaton, PM and Bright, RA (2009). A trivalent virus-like particle vaccine elicits protective immune responses against seasonal influenza strains in mice and ferrets. PLoS One 4: e6032.Google Scholar
Scholtissek, C (1994). Source for influenza pandemics. European Journal of Epidemiology 10: 455–458.Google Scholar
Scholtissek, C, Burger, H, Bachmann, PA and Hannoun, C (1983). Genetic relatedness of hemagglutinins of the H1 subtype of influenza A viruses isolated from swine and birds. Virology 129: 521–523.Google Scholar
Schultz-Cherry, S, Dybing, JK, Davis, NL, Williamson, C, Suarez, DL, Johnston, R and Perdue, ML (2000). Influenza virus (A/HK/156/97) hemagglutinin expressed by an alphavirus replicon system protects chickens against lethal infection with Hong Kong-origin H5N1 viruses. Virology 278: 55–59.Google Scholar
Shope, RE (1931). Swine Influenza : Iii. Filtration Experiments and Etiology. Journal of Experimental Medicine 54: 373–385.Google Scholar
Smith, W, Andrewes, CH and Laidlaw, PP (1933). A virus obtained from influenza patients. Lancet 222: 66–68.Google Scholar
Snolórzano, A, Alfaro, A, Ye, J, Azogue, S and Perez, DR (2010). Alternative live-attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIV) based on modified swine influenza backbones protect against epidemic and pandemic flu. In: The International Symposium on Neglected Influenza Viruses, Amelia Island, Florida, USA.Google Scholar
Solorzano, A, Webby, RJ, Lager, KM, Janke, BH, Garcia-Sastre, A and Richt, JA (2005). Mutations in the NS1 protein of swine influenza virus impair anti-interferon activity and confer attenuation in pigs. Journal of Virology 79: 7535–7543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stech, J, Garn, H, Wegmann, M, Wagner, R and Klenk, HD (2005). A new approach to an influenza live vaccine: modification of the cleavage site of hemagglutinin. Nature Medicine 11: 683–689.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutter, G, Wyatt, LS, Foley, PL, Bennink, JR and Moss, B (1994). A recombinant vector derived from the host range-restricted and highly attenuated MVA strain of vaccinia virus stimulates protective immunity in mice to influenza virus. Vaccine 12: 1032–1040.Google Scholar
Szecsi, J, Boson, B, Johnsson, P, Dupeyrot-Lacas, P, Matrosovich, M, Klenk, HD, Klatzmann, D, Volchkov, V and Cosset, FL (2006). Induction of neutralising antibodies by virus-like particles harbouring surface proteins from highly pathogenic H5N1 and H7N1 influenza viruses. Virology Journal 3: 70.Google Scholar
Tang, M, Harp, JA and Wesley, RD (2002). Recombinant adenovirus encoding the HA gene from swine H3N2 influenza virus partially protects mice from challenge with heterologous virus: A/HK/1/68 (H3N2). Archives of Virology 147: 2125–2141.Google Scholar
Thacker, E and Janke, B (2008). Swine influenza virus: zoonotic potential and vaccination strategies for the control of avian and swine influenzas. Journal of Infectious Diseases 197 (Suppl. 1): S19–S24.Google Scholar
Thomsen, DR, Marotti, KR, Palermo, DP and Post, LE (1987). Pseudorabies virus as a live virus vector for expression of foreign genes. Gene 57: 261–265.Google Scholar
Tian, ZJ, Zhou, GH, Zheng, BL, Qiu, HJ, Ni, JQ, Yang, HL, Yin, XN, Hu, SP and Tong, GZ (2006). A recombinant pseudorabies virus encoding the HA gene from H3N2 subtype swine influenza virus protects mice from virulent challenge. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 111: 211–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Townsend, AR, McMichael, AJ, Carter, NP, Huddleston, JA and Brownlee, GG (1984). Cytotoxic T cell recognition of the influenza nucleoprotein and hemagglutinin expressed in transfected mouse L cells. Cell 39: 13–25.Google Scholar
Townsend, HG, Penner, SJ, Watts, TC, Cook, A, Bogdan, J, Haines, DM, Griffin, S, Chambers, T, Holland, RE, Whitaker-Dowling, P, Youngner, JS and Sebring, RW (2001). Efficacy of a cold-adapted, intranasal, equine influenza vaccine: challenge trials. Equine Veterinary Journal 33: 637–643.Google Scholar
Treanor, JJ, Tierney, EL, Zebedee, SL, Lamb, RA and Murphy, BR (1990). Passively transferred monoclonal antibody to the M2 protein inhibits influenza A virus replication in mice. Journal of Virology 64: 1375–1377.Google Scholar
Treanor, JJ, Betts, RF, Smith, GE, Anderson, EL, Hackett, CS, Wilkinson, BE, Belshe, RB and Powers, DC (1996). Evaluation of a recombinant hemagglutinin expressed in insect cells as an influenza vaccine in young and elderly adults. Journal of Infectious Diseases 173: 1467–1470.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treanor, JJ, Schiff, GM, Couch, RB, Cate, TR, Brady, RC, Hay, CM, Wolff, M, She, D and Cox, MM (2006). Dose-related safety and immunogenicity of a trivalent baculovirus-expressed influenza-virus hemagglutinin vaccine in elderly adults. Journal of Infectious Diseases 193: 1223–1228.Google Scholar
Treanor, JJ, Schiff, GM, Hayden, FG, Brady, RC, Hay, CM, Meyer, AL, Holden-Wiltse, J, Liang, H, Gilbert, A and Cox, M (2007). Safety and immunogenicity of a baculovirus-expressed hemagglutinin influenza vaccine: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 297: 1577–1582.Google Scholar
van Oirschot, JT, Rziha, HJ, Moonen, PJ, Pol, JM and van Zaane, D (1986). Differentiation of serum antibodies from pigs vaccinated or infected with Aujeszky's disease virus by a competitive enzyme immunoassay. Journal of General Virology 67: 1179–1182.Google Scholar
Van Reeth, K, Brown, IH and Pensaert, M (2000). Isolations of H1N2 influenza A virus from pigs in Belgium. Veterinary Record 146: 588–589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Reeth, K, Gregory, V, Hay, A and Pensaert, M (2003). Protection against a European H1N2 swine influenza virus in pigs previously infected with H1N1 and/or H3N2 subtypes. Vaccine 21: 1375–1381.Google Scholar
Van Reeth, K, Brown, I, Essen, S and Pensaert, M (2004). Genetic relationships, serological cross-reaction and cross-protection between H1N2 and other influenza A virus subtypes endemic in European pigs. Virus Research 103: 115–124.Google Scholar
Van Reeth, K, Brown, IH, Durrwald, R, Foni, E, Labarque, G, Lenihan, P, Maldonado, J, Markowska-Daniel, I, Pensaert, M, Pospisil, Z and Koch, G (2008). Seroprevalence of H1N1, H3N2 and H1N2 influenza viruses in pigs in seven European countries in 2002–2003. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses 2: 99–105.Google Scholar
van Zijl, M, Wensvoort, G, de Kluyver, E, Hulst, M, van der Gulden, H, Gielkens, A, Berns, A and Moormann, R (1991). Live attenuated pseudorabies virus expressing envelope glycoprotein E1 of hog cholera virus protects swine against both pseudorabies and hog cholera. Journal of Virology 65: 2761–2765.Google Scholar
Vander Veen, R, Kamrud, K, Mogler, M, Loynachan, AT, McVicker, J, Berglund, P, Owens, G, Timberlake, S, Lewis, W, Smith, J and Harris, DH (2009). Rapid Development of an Efficacious Swine Vaccine for Novel H1N1. PLoS Currents Influenza 29: RRN1123.Google Scholar
Vincent, AL, Ma, W, Lager, KM, Janke, BH, Webby, RJ, Garcia-Sastre, A and Richt, JA (2007). Efficacy of intranasal administration of a truncated NS1 modified live influenza virus vaccine in swine. Vaccine 25: 7999–8009.Google Scholar
Vincent, AL, Lager, KM, Janke, BH, Gramer, MR and Richt, JA (2008a). Failure of protection and enhanced pneumonia with a US H1N2 swine influenza virus in pigs vaccinated with an inactivated classical swine H1N1 vaccine. Veterinary Microbiology 126: 310–323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vincent, AL, Ma, W, Lager, KM, Janke, BH and Richt, JA (2008b). Swine influenza viruses a North American perspective. Advances in Virus Research 72: 127–154.Google Scholar
Vincent, AL, Ma, W, Lager, KM, Gramer, MR, Richt, JA and Janke, BH (2009). Characterization of a newly emerged genetic cluster of H1N1 and H1N2 swine influenza virus in the United States. Virus Genes 39: 176–185.Google Scholar
Vincent, AL, Ciacci-Zanella, JR, Lorusso, A, Gauger, PC, Zanella, EL, JrKehrli, ME, Janke, BH and Lager, KM (2010a). Efficacy of inactivated swine influenza virus vaccines against the 2009 A/H1N1 influenza virus in pigs. Vaccine 28(15): 2782–2787.Google Scholar
Vincent, AL, Lager, KM, Richt, JA, Ma, W and Janke, BH (2010b). Summary of control issues for swine influenza. In: The International Symposium on Neglected Influenza Viruses, Amelia Island, Florida, USA, p. 22.Google Scholar
Walker, DH, Harrison, A, Murphy, K, Flemister, M and Murphy, FA (1976). Lymphoreticular and myeloid pathogenesis of Venezuelan equine encephalitis in hamsters. American Journal of Pathology 84: 351–370.Google Scholar
Wang, R, Song, A, Levin, J, Dennis, D, Zhang, NJ, Yoshida, H, Koriazova, L, Madura, L, Shapiro, L, Matsumoto, A, Mikayama, T, Kubo, RT, Sarawar, S, Cheroutre, H and Kato, S (2008). Therapeutic potential of a fully human monoclonal antibody against influenza A virus M2 protein. Antiviral Research 80: 168–177.Google Scholar
Wang, Z, La Rosa, C, Maas, R, Ly, H, Brewer, J, Mekhoubad, S, Daftarian, P, Longmate, J, Britt, WJ and Diamond, DJ (2004). Recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara expressing a soluble form of glycoprotein B causes durable immunity and neutralizing antibodies against multiple strains of human cytomegalovirus. Journal of Virology 78: 3965–3976.Google Scholar
Webby, RJ, Swenson, SL, Krauss, SL, Gerrish, PJ, Goyal, SM and Webster, RG (2000). Evolution of swine H3N2 influenza viruses in the United States. Journal of Virology 74: 8243–8251.Google Scholar
Webby, RJ, Rossow, K, Erickson, G, Sims, Y and Webster, R (2004). Multiple lineages of antigenically and genetically diverse influenza A virus co-circulate in the United States swine population. Virus Research 103: 67–73.Google Scholar
Webster, RG (2002). The importance of animal influenza for human disease. Vaccine 20 (Suppl. 2): S16–S20.Google Scholar
Webster, RG, Bean, WJ, Gorman, OT, Chambers, TM and Kawaoka, Y (1992). Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses. Microbiology Reviews 56: 152–179.Google Scholar
Webster, RG, Fynan, EF, Santoro, JC and Robinson, H (1994). Protection of ferrets against influenza challenge with a DNA vaccine to the haemagglutinin. Vaccine 12: 1495–1498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webster, RG, Peiris, M, Chen, H and Guan, Y (2006). H5N1 outbreaks and enzootic influenza. Emerging Infectious Diseases 12: 3–8.Google Scholar
Wesley, RD and Lager, KM (2005). Evaluation of a recombinant human adenovirus-5 vaccine administered via needle-free device and intramuscular injection for vaccination of pigs against swine influenza virus. American Journal of Veterinary Research 66: 1943–1947.Google Scholar
Wesley, RD and Lager, KM (2006). Overcoming maternal antibody interference by vaccination with human adenovirus 5 recombinant viruses expressing the hemagglutinin and the nucleoprotein of swine influenza virus. Veterinary Microbiology 118: 67–75.Google Scholar
Wesley, RD, Tang, M and Lager, KM (2004). Protection of weaned pigs by vaccination with human adenovirus 5 recombinant viruses expressing the hemagglutinin and the nucleoprotein of H3N2 swine influenza virus. Vaccine 22: 3427–3434.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whealy, ME, Baumeister, K, Robbins, AK and Enquist, LW (1988). A herpesvirus vector for expression of glycosylated membrane antigens: fusion proteins of pseudorabies virus gIII and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoproteins. Journal of Virology 62: 4185–4194.Google Scholar
White, AK, Ciacci-Zanella, J, Galeota, J, Ele, S and Osorio, FA (1996). Comparison of the abilities of serologic tests to detect pseudorabies-infected pigs during the latent phase of infection. American Journal of Veterinary Research 57: 608–611.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, MR, Doss, M, Boland, P, Tecle, T and Hartshorn, KL (2008). Innate immunity to influenza virus: implications for future therapy. Expert Reviews in Clinical Immunology 497–514.Google Scholar
Wright, PF, Naumann, G and Kawaoka, Y (2007). Orthomyxoviruses. In: Knipe, DM and Howley, PM (eds). Fields – Virology, 5th edn.Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, pp. 1691–1740.Google Scholar
Xie, H, Liu, TM, Lu, X, Wu, Z, Belser, JA, Katz, JM, Tumpey, TM and Ye, Z (2009). A live attenuated H1N1 M1 mutant provides broad cross-protection against influenza A viruses, including highly pathogenic A/Vietnam/1203/2004, in mice. Journal of Infectious Diseases 200: 1874–1883.Google Scholar
Xiong, C, Levis, R, Shen, P, Schlesinger, S, Rice, CM and Huang, HV (1989). Sindbis virus: an efficient, broad host range vector for gene expression in animal cells. Science 243: 1188–1191.Google Scholar
Yager, EJ, Dean, HJ and Fuller, DH (2009). Prospects for developing an effective particle-mediated DNA vaccine against influenza. Expert Review of Vaccines 8: 1205–1220.Google Scholar
Yang, C, Ye, L and Compans, RW (2008). Protection against filovirus infection: virus-like particle vaccines. Expert Review of Vaccines 7: 333–344.Google Scholar
Yewdell, JW, Bennink, JR, Smith, GL and Moss, B (1985). Influenza A virus nucleoprotein is a major target antigen for cross-reactive anti-influenza A virus cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 82: 1785–1789.Google Scholar
Youngner, JS, Whitaker-Dowling, P, Chambers, TM, Rushlow, KE and Sebring, R (2001). Derivation and characterization of a live attenuated equine influenza vaccine virus. American Journal of Veterinary Research 62: 1290–1294.Google Scholar
Yu, H, Hua, RH, Zhang, Q, Liu, TQ, Liu, HL, Li, GX and Tong, GZ (2008). Genetic evolution of swine influenza A (H3N2) viruses in China from 1970 to 2006. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 46: 1067–1075.Google Scholar
Yu, H, Zhang, PC, Zhou, YJ, Li, GX, Pan, J, Yan, LP, Shi, XX, Liu, HL and Tong, GZ (2009). Isolation and genetic characterization of avian-like H1N1 and novel ressortant H1N2 influenza viruses from pigs in China. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communication 386: 278–283.Google Scholar
Yuan, Z, Zhang, S, Liu, Y, Zhang, F, Fooks, AR, Li, Q and Hu, R (2008). A recombinant pseudorabies virus expressing rabies virus glycoprotein: safety and immunogenicity in dogs. Vaccine 26: 1314–1321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zamarin, D, Ortigoza, MB and Palese, P (2006). Influenza A virus PB1-F2 protein contributes to viral pathogenesis in mice. Journal of Virology 80: 7976–7983.Google Scholar
Zell, R, Motzke, S, Krumbholz, A, Wutzler, P, Herwig, V and Durrwald, R (2008). Novel reassortant of swine influenza H1N2 virus in Germany. Journal of General Virology 89: 271–276.Google Scholar
Zhang, F, Chen, J, Fang, F, Zhou, Y, Wu, J, Chang, H, Zhang, R, Wang, F, Li, X, Wang, H, Ma, G and Chen, Z (2005). Maternal immunization with both hemagglutinin- and neuraminidase-expressing DNAs provides an enhanced protection against a lethal influenza virus challenge in infant and adult mice. DNA and Cell Biology 24: 758–765.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhou, NN, Senne, DA, Landgraf, JS, Swenson, SL, Erickson, G, Rossow, K, Liu, L, Yoon, K, Krauss, S and Webster, RG (1999). Genetic reassortment of avian, swine, and human influenza A viruses in American pigs. Journal of Virology 73: 8851–8856.Google Scholar