When this journal was first produced in January 1992, the intent was to publish scientific and technical papers that would have a direct benefit on the welfare of animals kept on farms, in laboratories, as companions, in zoos or as managed by man in the wild. The submitted Articles in this fourth part of the fourth volume certainly span man's use of animals and they also, I believe, demonstrate that the knowledge and understanding gained during technical studies can often be used to improve the well-being of the animals themselves.

The aversive effects of 90 per cent argon in air, 30 per cent carbon dioxide in air or 90 per cent carbon dioxide in air were investigated in slaughter weight pigs. Aversion was assessed from their reluctance to enter the three gaseous atmospheres to obtain a reward (apples). The pigs did not show any aversion to the inhalation of 90 per cent argon in air. The majority of the pigs did not show aversion to the presence of 30 per cent carbon dioxide in air. By contrast, the inhalation of 90 per cent carbon dioxide was aversive to the majority of the pigs. Fasting them for up to 24h prior to testing did not overcome the pigs ‘ reluctance to enter an atmosphere containing 90 per cent carbon dioxide.

In Britain large numbers of animals are taken into captivity for treatment or care and then subsequently returned to the wild, but there are few data on the effectiveness of these rehabilitation programmes. In this study, over a period of four years 251 fox cubs that had been captive-reared were tagged and released; 90 were recovered. Survival rates were low, and road traffic accidents were found to be a major cause of mortality immediately following release. Recovery distances were lower than expected. The stress associated with captive-rearing meant that released foxes weighed less than wild-reared foxes, and they suffered further weight loss in the period immediately following release, even though an analysis of the stomach contents of animals recovered dead showed that released foxes rapidly learnt to hunt successfully.

It was concluded that captive-rearing is a problematic process for foxes, and contrary to predictions they face severe problems in adapting following release. Suggestions are made for the improvement of fox captive-rearing and release programmes, and the need for similar studies on other species is highlighted.

The release of animals from captivity frequently leads to a period of erratic movement behaviour which is thought to expose the animal to a high risk of mortality. Twenty-six foxes which had been reared at a wildlife hospital or captive-bred, were radio-collared when nearly full-grown and released without site acclimation. Immediately after release there was an erratic phase of behaviour, during which the foxes travelled widely and movement parameters were markedly elevated. For those foxes which survived, a second phase was entered after an average of 17.2 days, during which one small area only was used, and movement parameters were much reduced. In a second study, nine foxes were released following site acclimation in a pre-release pen; this process postponed but did not eliminate the phase of high movement activity.

This pattern of movement was compared with the dispersal behaviour of wild-reared foxes. It was concluded that released foxes, despite being proficient in other aspects of behaviour, were moving and behaving in a markedly abnormal manner and this resulted in a high death rate. The results are used to discuss methods of improving rehabilitation techniques.

A review of the scientific literature gives evidence that transferring previously single-caged adult macaques to permanent compatible pair-housing arrangements (isosexual pairs, adult/infant pairs) is associated with less risk of injury and morbidity than transferring them to permanent group-housing arrangements. Juvenile animals can readily be transferred to permanent group-housing situations without undue risks. Safe pair formation and subsequent pair-housing techniques have been developed for female and male rhesus (Macaca mulatta), stump-tailed (M. arctoides) and pig-tailed macaques (M. nemestrina) as well as for female long-tailed macaques (M. fascicularis). Pair housing does not jeopardize the animals’ physical health but it increases their behavioural health by providing them with an adequate environment to satisfy their need for social contact and social interaction.

Two experiments were carried out to determine whether lighting conditions during handling affected heart rate or behaviour in farmed red deer. In Experiment 1 heart rate was measured in 24 individual deer, held under restraint in a mechanical deer crush for two minutes, under either dark (0lux) or light (1500lux) conditions. A stethoscope was used to monitor heartbeat which was indicated vocally by the stethoscope operator on to a Dictaphone. In Experiment 2, 10 groups of three deer were confined for four minutes in an unfamiliar 4×6m light-proof pen with lighting provided either on the left or right-hand side of the pen, to provide a gradient across the pen from approximately 12 to 1000lux. For the first two minutes the deer were alone and for the second two minutes a person stood in the pen. An infrared video camera was used to record behaviour.

In Experiment 1, heart rate was lower (P < 0.05) in the dark compared with in the light when recording commenced, thereafter it decreased overall with similar (P > 0.05) values observed for the different lighting treatments. In Experiment 2, the mean position of the groups across the pen varied according to whether lighting was on the left or right, with groups displaced to the right when the lights were on the left, and standing in the middle of the pen when the lights were on the right (P < 0.05). During testing, groups moved away from whichever side the lights were on (P < 0.05). The experiments suggested that stress during restraint was reduced by providing darkness and that deer preferred dim lighting compared with bright lighting when confined in unfamiliar surroundings.

Stress in humans has been reported to be associated with a decrease in the salivary immunoglobulin A (s-IgA) levels enabling the possible use of s-IgA to assess stress. Prolonged stress, if reliably assessed in a non-invasive manner, may be used to assess animal welfare. This study analysed groups of dogs undergoing physical and temperamental training and sIgA levels were measured by rocket immunoelectrophoresis in prospective samples. Behavioural assessment was carried out and Cortisol levels in saliva were measured by ELISA. A significant negative correlation (P <0.007) between the logarithmic Cortisol concentrations and s-IgA levels in saliva was recorded. The behavioural assessment of the dogs agreed well with the biochemical markers. It is concluded that IgA levels in saliva may be a useful marker of dog well-being and that stress results in decreased s-IgA levels.

Pigs were selected at random from three lines (homozygous halothane positive, homozygous negative, and the heterozygotes). They were housed for four weeks within standardized environmental conditions with six pigs per pen corresponding to each of the three lines with two treatment combinations (6×3×2). Half of the pigs were allocated to routine care without humans entering the pen, while the other ones received an increased human contact treatment; animal-man interaction times were recorded. Before and after the four-week experimental period, pigs were housed individually for one day. A blood sample was taken for beta-endorphin analysis and heart rate was measured. The final heart rate measurements were continued during a transport of two hours. With respect to animal-man interaction times no clear treatment effect was observed. Increased human contact lowered the plasma beta-endorphin content to a greater extent as a function of time, while heart rate also became lower. The latter may result in an improved heart function during handling and transport. Differences with regard to the halothane gene were observed during housing conditions, but not during transport.

A study was conducted over 24 days to evaluate the effects of three environmental enrichment techniques (frozen balls of ice containing fish, various scents, hanging logs) on four captive African lions (Panthera leo). Behavioural data on activity level and behavioural diversity were collected daily during a baseline and an enriched session. All enrichments produced positive changes in behaviour. Enrichment was also associated with increased use of space by the lions. The enrichment techniques evaluated in this study each produced distinct and positive changes in behaviour thus reinforcing the need for variety to be exercised in captive enrichment programmes. Providing different enrichments allows animals to perform a greater range of behaviours, become more active in captivity, and will decrease the likelihood of habituation to certain enrichment items. Environmental enrichment should be a part of any management protocol for animal welfare and health.

It has been known for many years that cigarettes are bad for the health. This knowledge has been largely acquired from epidemiological studies in the human population - where it is suggested that, in the UK alone, over 100,000 smokers die every year as a result of their habit.

Over the years there has been much UK, European and International legislation which has, directly or indirectly, had an influence on the protection of wild birds. Some of this legislation is aimed at conserving rare species or controlling the shooting of the so-called game birds. Some indirectly help bird conservation by protecting certain habitats or by controlling, in a more general sense, rural development and land usage.

December 1994 and January 1995 saw a significant increase in demonstrations against the live export of sheep and calves at several ports and airfields all over the UK. These demonstrations followed the decision by some of the larger ferry companies to ‘ban’ the carrying of sheep and calves; a decision which has since been deemed illegal and reversed by the High Court. Nevertheless, the welfare of these animals is now firmly in the public eye and there is great pressure on the livestock industry to reduce the number of animals exported live to mainland Europe for ‘immediate’ slaughter or further fattening and slaughter.

Independence, the education publishers based in Cambridge (UK), have produced a number of booklets which offer up-to-date information on important issues in society. These booklets are aimed at GCSE and A level students (14 to 18-year-olds) and each is essentially a collection of previously published information ie leaflets, press-releases and pieces from newspapers and magazines. They have been selectively gathered together with the intent of providing the reader with a balanced view of the subject.

It is widely held that one way to quickly improve the welfare of at least some farm animals is to label food on display in the shops with animal welfare criteria. This usually means identifying to the customer, products which have been produced in welfare friendly husbandry systems. The discerning and welfare oriented consumer can then purchase - often at an increased cost - the welfare friendly food and in effect discriminate against the non-welfare friendly products. Some critics have cynically suggested that this just allows the affluent middle classes to indulge in their fantasies of how animal agriculture ought to be. Practical experience with the somewhat flawed, free-range egg labelling system in the UK has suggested that the share of the market is only some 15-20 per cent, and even this low figure tends to fall when hard economic times hit the consumer.

Criticisms of the use of animals in biomedical research come from many different groups in society. Particular attention has to be paid to these criticisms if they are put forward by physicians, research scientists and health workers. These are the very people who should have well-informed views about the value of animal experimentation. They should be the ones able to answer the question: does the knowledge so gained really help in reducing human and/or animal suffering?

Each year the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) holds an Animal Welfare Forum. The papers presented at this annual event are published in the Journal of the AVMA and are collectively reprinted as a ‘proceedings of the meeting’. In 1994 the Forum met in Rosemont, Illinois and the subject was Veterinary Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Research. The following seven papers were given and are now published, together with a brief Opening remarks’ by the then President Elect of the AVMA in the February 15th issue of the AVMA journal.

Each year very large numbers of wild mammals and birds are killed by man. Some of this killing is for sport; some is for pest control; and some is accidental. A report based on an investigation carried out by Ν C Fox on behalf of the Hawk Board - a component body of the Joint Nature Conservation Committee of the Department of Environment - into the nature and extent of animal suffering caused by current methods of pest control and field sports, has now been published. The data presented have been derived from the literature and contributions from, and extensive consultations with professional specialists. Some fascinating if unusual ‘facts’ are put forward: humans driving cars probably kill up to 220 million vertebrates each year; domestic cats probably account for some 210 million more. These figures are in contrast to the small number of animals taken by falconers (c 60,000) and hunts (c 35,000 foxes, hares or deer). It is also argued that the use of gazehounds (ie greyhounds, lurchers, whippets) and raptors is probably the most humane method of killing wild animals in that the catch-to-kill time is short, and the prey are either caught and quickly killed or they escape largely uninjured.

It is probably true that most of the general public would confess to a general lack of understanding of biotechnology, and many would not be clear as to what techniques are included in the term. This is unfortunate as it means that they also do not have a good understanding of the methods by which their food is produced, and of the ethical principles involved. There is therefore a good argument that to improve the standards of decision making in this area there should be more education. This volume contains papers presented at a conference organized by Norwegian and Swedish ethical organizations. The conference brought together scientists and participants from non-governmental organizations (NGOs). None of the discussions are reported but the editors do provide a summary of the conference, from which it is clear that there was some polarization of opinion between the scientists and the NGOs.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) has now published its 18th annual report on bovine tuberculosis in badgers. Previous reports in this series have, over the years, detailed the evidence that badgers can be involved in the maintenance and spread of the disease, and the actions that have been taken to deal with the problem.