1 On the Christianity of secularism, see Talal Asad, Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003); and the contributions in Ari Joskowicz and Ethan Katz, eds., Secularism in Question: Jews and Judaism in Modern Times (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015).

2 On Europe and Latin Christendom, see for instance Robert Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950–1350 (London: Penguin, 1993), especially chapter 11; William Chester Jordan, “‘Europe’ in the Middle Ages,” in The Idea of Europe: From Antiquity to the European Union, ed. Anthony Pagden (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 72–90. On the shift from Christendom to a more geographical conception of Europe, see John Hale, The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance (London: HarperCollins, 1993), 3–50. On the emergence of a more secular conception of Europe linked to particular political forms, see the discussion in Anthony Pagden’s introduction to Pagden, The Idea of Europe, 1–32, especially pp. 1–4.

3 Bartlett, The Making of Europe, 160–61.

4 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, “Extrait du projet de paix perpétuelle de monsieur l’abbé de Saint-Pierre” [1761], Œuvres complètes, vol. 4, Mélanges, part 1 (Paris: Lefèvre, 1839), 259, cited in Anthony Pagden, “Europe: Conceptualising a Continent,” in Pagden, The Idea of Europe, 33–54, here p. 43.

5 Indicative of new work on missions and empire are Andrew Porter, Religion Versus Empire? British Protestant Missionaries and Overseas Expansion, 1700–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004); and J. P. Daughton, An Empire Divided: Religion, Republicanism, and the Making of French Colonialism, 1880–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006). On the mobilization of faith communities around secular causes, see Abigail Green and Vincent Viaene, eds., Religious Internationals in the Modern World: Globalization and Faith Communities since 1750 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012). Michael Barnett, Empire of Humanity: A History of Humanitarianism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011), 49–94, reflects the direction of travel on humanitarianism, but see the critique offered in Abigail Green, “Humanitarianism in Nineteenth-Century Context: Religious, Gendered, National,” Historical Journal 57, no. 4 (2014): 1157–75.

6 On Jews in national contexts, see Pierre Birnbaum and Ira Katznelson, eds., Paths of Emancipation: Jews, States, and Citizenship (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995). Recent work has been more locally focused, see Till van Rahden, Jews and Other Germans: Civil Society, Religious Diversity and Urban Politics in Breslau, 1860–1925 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2008). A not wholly dissimilar literature on Muslims has begun to emerge, for instance Nathalie Clayer and Eric Germain, eds., Islam in Inter-War Europe (New York: Hurst and Company, 2008), part 4. Humayun Ansari, “The Infidel Within”: Muslims in Britain since 1800 (London: Hurst, 2004), is a model of how to write such a study. For a more imperial take, see Naomi Davidson, “Muslim Bodies in the Metropole: Social Assistance and ‘Religious’ Practice in Interwar Paris,” in Muslims in Interwar Europe: A Transcultural Historical Perspective, ed. Bekim Agai, Umar Ryad, and Mehdi Sajid (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 105–23.

7 On the relative novelty of this periphery, see Larry Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994).

8 Fernand Braudel, preface to the English edition of The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II [1949], trans Siân Reynolds, 2 vols. (1972–1973; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995–1996), 1:13–14, here p. 14. On the Mediterranean as a modern unity, see Julia A. Clancy-Smith, Mediterraneans: North Africa and Europe in an Age of Migration, c. 1800–1900 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010); Maurizio Isabella and Konstantina Zanou, eds., Mediterranean Diasporas: Politics and Identity in the Long 19th Century (London: Bloomsbury, 2015); and James McDougall, “Modernity in ‘Antique Lands’: Perspectives from the Western Mediterranean,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 60, no. 1/2 (2017): 1–17.

9 Ben Gidley and James Renton, eds., Antisemitism and Islamophobia in Europe: A Shared Story? (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).

10 Tharik Hussain, Minarets in the Mountains: A Journey into Muslim Europe (Chesham: Bradt Travel Guides, 2021).

11 Daniel J. Schroeter, “Orientalism and the Jews of the Mediterranean,” Journal of Mediterranean Studies 4, no. 2 (1994): 183–96, here p. 185.

12 Jonathan I. Israel, Diasporas within a Diaspora: Jews, Crypto-Jews and the World Maritime Empires (1540–1740) (Leiden: Brill, 2002).

13 Notably Elisheva Carlebach, The Pursuit of Heresy: Rabbi Moses Hagiz and the Sabbatian Controversies (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990); Matthias B. Lehmann, Emissaries from the Holy Land: The Sephardic Diaspora and the Practice of Pan-Judaism in the Eighteenth Century (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2014); Adam Teller, Rescue the Surviving Souls: The Great Jewish Refugee Crisis of the Seventeenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2020).

14 Lisa Moses Leff, Sacred Bonds of Solidarity: The Rise of Jewish Internationalism in Nineteenth-Century France (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006); Abigail Green, “Nationalism and the ‘Jewish International’: Religious Internationalism in Europe and the Middle East c. 1840–c. 1880,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 50, no. 2 (2008): 535–58.

15 Ivan Davidson Kalmar and Derek J. Penslar, eds., Orientalism and the Jews (Waltham: Brandeis University Press, 2005).

16 Eli Bar-Chen, Weder Asiaten Noch Orientalen. Internationale Jüdische Organisationen und die Europäisierung “Rückständiger” Juden (Würzburg: Ergon, 2005); Abigail Green, “The ‘West’ and the Rest: Jewish Philanthropy and Globalization to c. 1880,” in Purchasing Power: The Economics of Modern Jewish History, ed. Rebecca Kobrin and Adam Teller (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 155–70.

17 Romano Prodi, “A Union of Minorities” [2004], in The Jewish Contribution to European Integration, ed. Sharon Pardo and Hila Zahavi (London: Lexington Books, 2020), 85–92, here p. 85; cited in Matti Bunzl, “Between Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia: Some Thoughts on the New Europe,” American Ethnologist 32, no. 4 (2005): 499–508, here p. 502.

18 For good case studies, see Jaclyn Granick, International Jewish Humanitarianism in the Age of the Great War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021); and Nathan Kurz, Jewish Internationalism and Human Rights after the Holocaust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020).

19 Malachi Haim Hacohen, Jacob and Esau: Jewish European History between Nation and Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), xi. Hacohen’s attempt to produce a “Jewish European history” represents a less globally framed alternative to this approach.

20 Ethan B. Katz, The Burdens of Brotherhood: Jews and Muslims from North Africa to France (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2015).

21 As a corrective to the Germanocentric narrative of Jewish modernity, see Eliyahu Stern, The Genius: Elijah of Vilna and the Making of Modern Judaism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013).

22 See Daniel Goffman, The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Suraiya Faroqhi, The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It (London: I. B. Tauris, 2004); and the contributions to Pascal Firges, Tobias Graf, and Gülay Tulasoğlu, eds., Well-Connected Domains: Towards an Entangled Ottoman History (Leiden: Brill, 2014).

23 Thomas More, Utopia [1516], cited in Hale, The Civilization of Europe, 38.

24 Maria Todorova, Imagining the Balkans (1997; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 12.

25 Edin Hajdarpasic, Whose Bosnia? Nationalism and Political Imagination in the Balkans, 1840–1914 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2015); Emily Greble, “Hierarchies of Citizenship: Islam, the Yugoslav State, and Continuities of Empire,” working paper, University of Washington-Seattle, February 9, 2017, https://podtail.com/en/podcast/the-ellison-center-at-the-university-of-washington/emily-greble-hierarchies-of-citizenship-islam-and-/; Nathalie Clayer, “Behind the Veil: The Reform of Islam in Inter-War Albania or the Search for a ‘Modern’ and ‘European’ Islam,” in Clayer and Germain, Islam in Inter-War Europe, 128–55.

26 Leyla Amzi-Erdoğdular, “Afterlife of Empire: Muslim-Ottoman Relations in Habsburg Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1878–1914” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 2013), 94. See also Catherine Mayeur-Jaouen, “‘À la poursuite de la réforme’ : renouveaux et débats historiographiques de l’histoire religieuse et intellectuelle de l’islam, xv^e–xxi^e siècle,” Annales HSS 73, no. 2 (2018): 317–58.

27 See Nathalie Clayer and Eric Germain, “Muslim Networks in Christian Lands,” in Clayer and Germain, Islam in Inter-War Europe, 22–31.

28 Lâle Can, “Connecting People: A Central Asian Sufi Network in Turn-of-the-Century Istanbul,” Modern Asian Studies 46, no. 2 (2012): 373–401; Can, “The Protection Question: Central Asians and Extraterritoriality in the Late Ottoman Empire,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 48, no. 4 (2016): 679–99.

29 Nile Green, Terrains of Exchange: Religious Economies of Modern Islam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 19.

30 Nile Green, “Spacetime and the Muslim Journey West: Industrial Communications in the Making of the ‘Muslim World’,” American Historical Review 118, no. 2 (2013): 401–29, here p. 429. See also David Motadel, “The Making of Muslim Communities in Western Europe, 1914–1939,” in Transnational Islam in Interwar Europe: Muslim Activists and Thinkers, ed. Götz Nordbruch and Umar Ryad (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 13–43.

31 For a transnational approach, see Agai, Ryad, and Sajid, Muslims in Interwar Europe.

32 As described in Gerhard Höpp, “Zwischen Moschee und Demonstration. Muslime in Berlin, 1920–1930,” Moslemische Revue 3 (1990): 135–46; 4 (1990): 230–38; and 1 (1991): 13–19. On the social interaction and accommodations between Muslims and non-Muslim Europeans, see for instance David Motadel, “Islamische Bürgerlichkeit. Das soziokulturelle Milieu der muslimischen Minderheit in Berlin 1918–1939,” Tel Aviver Jahrbuch für Deutsche Geschichte 37 (2009): 103–21.

33 Asad, Formations of the Secular, 13.

34 Talal Asad, “Muslims and European Identity: Can Europe Represent Islam?” in Pagden, The Idea of Europe, 209–27.