Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-767nl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-13T08:51:50.190Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Identité Urbaine et Classes Moyennes dans L'Angleterre Moderne

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 July 2017

Jonathan Barry
Jonathan Barry*
Affiliation:
Université d'Exeter
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Cette étude se propose de remettre en question les idées couramment exprimées à propos de la nature de l'identité urbaine dans l'Angleterre moderne et surtout du rapport entre cette identité et l'identification des classes moyennes (middling sort). L'historiographie a souvent associé les deux concepts, ce qui n'a conduit qu'à négliger systématiquement le sujet. Une étude de l'historiographie permettra de proposer une critique de ces hypothèses enchevêtrées et constituera ce qui ne peut être, par la force des choses, que l'esquisse d'une perspective alternative.

Summary

Summary

This essay challenges the historiographical assumptions which have promoted a neglect of the closely related thems or urban identity and class identity in early modem England. It seeks to identify in bourgeois association a set of values and practices which were of crucial importance in defining the nature both of urban life and of the middling sort. Faced with the instabilities and pluralism of urban life and commercial society, class formation was a continuous process, determined less by relations with the social groups above and below the bourgeoisie, as normally assumed, but by the managment of urban living and relationships within the bourgeoisie. Through studying the nature of associations, and especially the dialectic they involve between equality and inequality, dependence and independence, we can begin to understand the collective character of bourgeois experience.

Type
Identités Urbaines
Information
Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales , Volume 48 , Issue 4 , August 1993 , pp. 853 - 883
Copyright
Copyright © Les Éditions de l’EHESS 1993

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

* Middling sort est l'expression utilisée avant la révolution industrielle pour désigner les groupes sociaux intermédiaires entre l'élite aristocratique et le peuple. L'expression a par la suite été remplacée par celle de middle class. Nous la traduisons en français par classe moyenne. Je tiens à remercier Christopher Brooks, Sandra Cavallo, Colin Jones, John Triffitt qui m'ont aidé, au cours de discussions, à exprimer les idées exposées ici et tous ceux qui ont commenté les exposés présentés à l'Institute of Historical Research, à l'Université de St Andrews, à la Maison des Sciences de l'Hommes et au colloque de l'Economie and Social Research Council sur l'histoire urbaine à l'Université de Essex.

1. Earle, P., « The middling sort in London », dans Barry, J. et Brooks, C. éds, The Middling Sort in Early Modem England(Basingstoke, Macmillan, sous presse).Google Scholar

2. Parmi les exemples récents : Kramnick, I., Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism : Political Identity in Late Eighteenth-Century England, Cornell, Cornell University Press, 1990 ;Google Scholar Billinge, M., « Hegemony, class and power in late Georgian and early Victorian England », dans Baker, A. R. H., Gregory, D. éds, Explorations in Historical Geography, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984, pp. 28–67 ;Google Scholar Koditschek, T., Class Formation and Urban Industrial Society : Bradford, 1750-1850, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990.Google Scholar

3. Pour ce débat voir : Lang, R. G., « Social origins and social aspirations of Jacobean London merchants », Economie History Review, 27,1974, pp. 28–47 ;Google Scholar Grassby, R., « Social mobility and business enterprise in seventeenth-century England », dans Pennington, D., Thomas, K., eds, Puritans and Revolutionaries, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1978, pp. 355–381 ;Google Scholar Rogers, N., « Money, land and lineage in Hanoverian London », Social History, 4, 1979, pp 437–454 ;Google Scholar Andrew, D. T., Rogers, N., « Aldermen and big bourgeoisie of London reconsidered », Social History, 6, 1981, pp. 359–369 ;Google Scholar L. et Stone, J.C.F., An Open Elite ? England 1540-1880, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1984 ;Google Scholar Horwitz, H., « The mess of the middle class revisited », Continuity and Change, 2, 1987, pp. 263–296 ;Google Scholar Wilson, R. G., « Merchants and land », Northern History, 24,1988, pp. 75–100 ;Google Scholar Allen, R. C., « The price of freehold land and the interest rate in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries », Economie History Review, 41, 1988, pp. 33–50.Google Scholar

4. Black, A., Guilds and Civil Society in European Political Thoughtfrom 12c. to the Présent, Londres, Methuen, 1984 ;Google Scholar Kamenka, E., Neale, R. S., eds, Feudalism, Capitalism and Beyond, Londres, Arnold, 1975 ;Google Scholar Macfarlane, A., The Origins of English Individualism, Oxford, Blackwell, 1978 ;Google Scholar Neale, R. S., Class in English History 1680-1850, Oxford, Blackwell, 1981 ;Google Scholar Corrigan, P., Sayer, D., The Great Arch : English State Formation as Cultural Révolution, Oxford, Blackwell, 1985 ;Google Scholar Aston, T. H., Philpin, E., eds, The Brenner Debate, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987 ;Google Scholar Mooers, C., The Making of Bourgeois Europe, Londres, Verso, 1991, pp. 155–185.Google Scholar

5. Fraser, D., Urban Politics in Victorian England, Leicester, Leicester University Press, 1976 ;Google Scholar Fraser, D., Power and Authority in the Victorian City, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1979;Google Scholar Morris, R. J., «Voluntary societies and the British urban élite 1780-1850», Historical Journal, 26, 1983, pp. 95–118 ;Google Scholar Morris, R. J., éd., Class, Power and Social Structure in British Nineteenth-Century Towns, Leicester, Leicester University Press, 1986 ;Google Scholar Davidoff, L., Hall, C., Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class 1780-1850, Londres, Hutchinson, 1987 ;Google Scholar Jones, P., Nenedic, S., Hills, P., « Studying the middle class in nineteenth-century Britain», Urban History Yearbook, 14, 1987, pp. 22–50 ;Google Scholar Morris, R. J., Class, Sect and Party : The Making of the British Middle Class, Leeds 1820-1850, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1990 ;Google Scholar Nenedic, S., « Businessmen, the urban middle class and the « dominance » of manufacturers in nineteenth-century Britain », Economie History Review, 44,1991, pp. 66–85.Google Scholar

6. Clark, P., Sociability and Urbanity ; Clubs and Societies in the Eighteenth-Century City, Victorian Studies Centre, University of Leicester, 1986, p. 4.Google Scholar Pour un exposé de ce processus dans le système urbain en général voir : Clark, P., Slack, P., English Towns in Transition 1500- 1700, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1976 Google Scholar et Pythian-Adams, C., Désolation of a City: Coventry and the Urban Crisis of the Late Middle Ages, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1979.Google Scholar Parmi les critiques : Pearl, V., « Change and stability in seventeenth-century London », London Journal, 5, 1979, p. 3–34 ;Google Scholar Boulton, J., Neighbourhood and Society : London Suburb in 17c, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987 ;Google Scholar Dyer, A., Décline and Growth in English Towns 1400-1640, Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1991 ;Google Scholar Archer, I., The Pursuit of Stability : Social Relations in Elizabethan London, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991.Google Scholar

7. Borsay, P., «The English urban renaissance», Social History, 2, 1977, pp. 581–603;Google Scholar Holmes, G., « The achievement of stability », dans Cannon, J., éd., The Whig Ascendancy, Londres, Arnold, 1981, pp. 1–23 ;Google Scholar Clark, P., éd., The Transformation of English Provincial Towns 1600-1800, Londres, Hutchinson, 1984 ;Google Scholar Borsay, P., « Urban development in the âge of Defoe », dans Jones, C., ed, Britain in First Age of Party, Londres, Hambledon, 1987, pp. 195– 291 ;Google Scholar Borsay, P., The English Urban Renaissance, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1989.Google Scholar Pour une critique voir : Barry, J., « Provincial town culture 1640-1780 : urbane or civic ? » dans Wear, A. , Pittock Wesson, J., éd., Interprétation and Cultural History, Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1991, pp. 198–234.Google Scholar

8. Hexter, J.H., « The myth of the middle class in Tudor England », dans son Reappraisals in History, Londres, 1961, pp. 71–116;Google Scholar Perkin, H., The Origins of Modem English Society 1780- 1880, London, Routledge, 1969 ;Google Scholar Thompson, E.P., « Patrician society, plebeian culture », Journal of Social History, 7,1974, pp. 382–405 ;Google Scholar Thompson, E.P., « Eighteenth-century society : class struggle without class ? » Social History, 3, 1978, pp. 133–165 ;Google Scholar Wrightson, K., English Society 1580-1680, Londres, Hutchinson, 1982 ;Google Scholar Bush, M.L., The English Aristocracy, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1984 ;Google Scholar Cannon, J., Aristocratie Century, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984 ;Google Scholar Clark, J.C.D., English Society 1688-1832, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985 ;Google Scholar Beckett, J.V., The Aristocracy in England, 1660-1914, Oxford, Blackwell, 1986.Google Scholar Pour des commentaires critiques de cette approche voir : Hill, C., « A bourgeois révolution ? » dans Pocock, J.G.A., éd., Three British Révolutions, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1980, pp. 109–139 ;Google Scholar Wrightson, K., « The social order of early modem England : three approaches », dans Bonfield, L. et alii, eds, The World We Hâve Gained, Oxford, Blackwell, 1979, pp. 177–202 ;Google Scholar Corfield, P., éd., Language, History and Class, Oxford, Blackwell, 1991 ;Google Scholar Rule, J.G., Albion's People : English Society 1714-1815, Harlow, Longman, 1982;Google Scholar Seed, J., « From “middling sort” to middle class in late eighteenth-century and early nineteenth-century England », dans Bush, M.L., éd., Social Orders and Social Classes in Europe since 1500, Harlow, Longman, 1992, pp. 114–135 ;Google Scholar K. Wrightson, « Sorts of people in Tudor and Stuart England », dans J. Barry, C. Brooks, eds, op. cit.

9. E. & Yeo, S., eds, Popular Culture and Class Conflict 1590-1914, Hassocks, Harvester, 1981 ;Google Scholar Fletcher, A., Stevenson, J., eds, Order and Disorder in Early Modem England, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985 ;Google Scholar Underdown, D., Revel, Riot and Rébellion : Popular Politics and Culture in England 1603-1660, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1985 ;Google Scholar M. Mullet, « Popular culture and popular politics : some régional case studies » dans C. Jones, éd., op. cit., pp. 129-150. Sur l'appropriation du terme « le peuple » par les classe intermédiaires voir : Hill, C., « The poor and the people » dans ses Collected Essays, vol. 3, Brighton, Harvester, 1986, pp. 247–273.Google Scholar

10. Un propos similaire est tenu dans Weissman, R., « The importance of being ambiguous : social relations, individualism and identity in Renaissance Florence » dans Zimmerman, S., Weissman, R. éds, Urban Life in the Renaissance, Newark, University of Delaware Press, 1989, pp. 269–280.Google Scholar

11. Sacks, D., «The corporate town and the British state : Bristol's little businesses 1625- 41 », Past and Présent, 110, 1986, pp. 69–105 ;Google Scholar Holmes, C., « The county community in Stuart historiography », Journal of British Studies, 19, 1980, pp. 54–73 ;Google Scholar Howell, R., « Newcastle and the nation », in Archaeologia Aeliana, 8, 1980, pp. 17–34.Google Scholar Pour la politique urbaine voir, Money, J., Expérience and Identity : Birmingham and the West Midlands 1760-1800, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1977 ;Google Scholar Evans, J., Seventeenth-Century Norwich : Politics, Religion & Government 1620-90, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1979 ;Google Scholar Rogers, N., Whigs and Cities : Popular Politics in the Age of Walpole and Pitt, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1989 ;Google Scholar Langford, P., Public Life and the Propertied Englishman 1689-1798, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1991 ;Google Scholar Sacks, D.H., The Widening Gâte : Bristol and the Atlantic Economy, 1450-1700, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1991.Google Scholar

12. N. Rogers, « Money, land and lineage » ; D. Souden, « Migrants and the population structure of later seventeenth-century provincial cities and market towns », dans P. Clark, éd., Transformation of English Provincial Towns, pp. 133-168 ; Everitt, A., « Dynasty and community since the seventeenth century », dans son Landscape and Community in England, Londres, Hambledon, 1985, pp. 309–330 ;Google Scholar Beier, A.L., Finlay, R. éd., « The Making of the Metropolis : London 1500-1700 », Harlow, Longman, 1986;Google Scholar Clark, P., Souden, D., eds, Migration and Society in Early Modem England, Londres, Hutchinson, 1987 ;Google Scholar H. Horwitz, art. cit.

13. Chalklin, C.W., « Capital expenditure on building for cultural purposes », Business History, 22, 1980, pp. 51–70 ;Google Scholar P. Borsay, toc. cit. ; K. Wilson, « Urban culture and political activism in Hanoverian England », dans Hellmuth, E., éd., The Transformation of Political Culture in Britain and Germany in the Late Eighteenth Century, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 165–184.Google Scholar

14. P. Clark, P. Slack, loc. cit. ; N. Rogers, « Urban opposition to Whig oligarchy », dans M.C. & Jacobs, J., eds, The Origins of Anglo-American Radicalism, London, Hutchinson, 1984, pp. 132–48 ;Google Scholar R.S. Neale, loc. cit. ; P. Borsay, loc. cit. La critique la plus complète de la théorie d'oligarchie se trouve dans J. Evans, loc. cit.

15. Morris, R. J., loc. cit. Pour la gentry voir : Bush, M., loc. cit., et Mingay, G.E., The Gentry, Londres, Longman, 1976.Google Scholar

16. Mayer, A., « The lower middle class as an historical problem », Journal of Modem History, 47, 1975, pp. 409–436.Google Scholar Pour Londres voir : Brenner, R., « The Civil War politics of London's merchant community », Past and Présent, 58,1973, pp. 53–107 ;Google Scholar Brewer, J., Party Ideology and Popular Politics at the Accession of George Iii, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1976 ;Google Scholar Stevenson, J., éd., London in the Age of Reform, Oxford, Blackwell, 1977 ;Google Scholar De Krey, G. S., A Fractured Society : The Politics of London in the First Age of Party, 1688-1715, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1985 ;Google Scholar Harris, T., London Crowds in the Reign of Charles II, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987 ;Google Scholar Horwitz, H., « Party in a civic context : London from the Exclusion Crisis to the fall of Walpole », dans Jones, C. éd., loc. cit. ; Liu, T., Puritan London, Newark, University of Delaware Press, 1989 ;Google Scholar P. Earle, loc. cit. ; N. Rogers, op.cit.; I. Archer, op. cit.

17. Thompson, E.P., The Making of the English Working Class, édition revisée, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1968 Google Scholar (La Formation de la Classe Ouvrière Anglaise, traduit de l'anglais par Gilles Dauvé, Mireille Golaszevski et Marie-Noëlle Thibault, présentation par Miguel Abensour, Paris, Gallimard, Le Seuil, 1988).

18. Smith, S., « The idéal and the real : apprentice-master relationships in seventeenthcentury London », History of Education Quarterly, 21,1981, pp. 449–460 ;Google Scholar Rule, J.G., « The property of skill in the period of manufacture », dans Joyce, P., éd., Historical Meanings of Work, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp. 99–118 ;Google Scholar Pelling, M., « Child health as a social value in early modem England », Social History of Medicine, 1, 1988, pp. 135–164 ;Google Scholar Ben-Amos, I.K., « Service and the coming of âge of young men in seventeenth-century England », Continuity and Change, 3, 1988, pp. 41–64 ;Google Scholar Cunningham, H., « The employment and unemployment of children in England c.1680-1851 », Past and Présent, 126, 1990, pp. 115– 150 ;Google Scholar Mayhew, G., « Life-cycle service and the family unit in early modem Rye », Continuity and Change, 6, 1990, pp. 201–227 ;Google Scholar C. Brooks, « Apprenticeship, social mobility and the middling sort » dans J. Barry, C. Brooks, eds, loc. cit.

19. James, F.G., « Charity endowments as sources of local crédit in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century England », Journal of Economie History, 8, 1948 ;Google Scholar Carlton, C., The Court of Orphans, Leicester, Leicester University Press, 1974 ;Google Scholar Holman, J. R., « Orphans in pre-industrial towns : the case of Bristol », Local Population Studies, 15, 1975, pp. 40–44 ;Google Scholar Morris, R. J., « The middle class and the property cycle during the Industrial Révolution », dans Smout, T., éd., The Searchfor Wealth and Stability, Londres, Macmillan, 1979, pp. 91–113 ;Google Scholar Earle, P., « Age and accumulation in the London business community », Mckendrick, N., Outhwaite, R.B., eds, Business Life and Public Policy, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1986, pp. 38–63 ;Google Scholar Rosser, G., « Communities of parish and guild in the later Middle Ages », dans Wright, S. J., éd., Parish, Church and People, Londres, Hutchinson, 1988, pp. 29– 55 ;Google Scholar Pelling, M., Smith, R.M., eds, Life, Death and the Elderly, Londres, Routledge, 1991.Google Scholar

20. Pythian-Adams, C., « Ceremony and the citizen : the cérémonial year at Coventry 1450- 1550», dans Clark, P., et Slack, P., eds, Crisis and Order in English Towns 1500-1700, Londres, Routledge, 1972 ;Google Scholar Morris, R. J., « Voluntary Associations » ; James, M., Society, Politics and Culture, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1986 ;Google Scholar Sacks, D. H., « The démise of the martyrs : the feasts of St Clément and St Katherine in Bristol 1400-1600 », Social History, 11,1986, pp. 141–196 ;Google Scholar P. Clark, loc. cit. ; P. Borsay, loc. cit. ; R. J. Morris, « Clubs, societies, and associations », dans Thompson, F. L. M., éd., The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750-1950, vol. 3, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990, pp. 395–443.Google Scholar

21. Pour des réflexions récentes concernant ces sujets, voir : Seaver, P., « The puritan work ethic revisited », Journal of British Studies, 19 (2), 1980, pp. 35–53 ;Google Scholar J. Innés, « Politics and morals : the Reformation of Manners movements in the late eighteenth century », dans E. Hellmuth, éd., loc. cit., pp. 165-184 ; D. H. Sacks, op. cit., pp. 304-329 ; Davison, L et alii, eds, Stilling the Grumbling Hive : The Response to Social and Economie Problems in England, 1689-1750, Stroud, Alan Sutton, 1992 Google Scholar

22. Je dois cette idée à J. Triffitt, « Believing and belonging » dans S. Wright, éd., op. cit., pp. 179-202.

23. J. Triffitt, art. cit. ; J. Barry, « The parish in civic life », dans S. Wright, éd., op. cit., pp. 152-178 ; S. D'Cruze, « The middling sort in eighteenth-century Colchester », dans J. Barry et C. Brooks, eds., op. cit

24. Mcveagh, J., Tradefull Merchants : The Portrayal of the Capitalist in Literature, Londres, Routledge, 1981 ;Google Scholar O'Connell, L.S., « The Elizabethan bourgeois hero-tale », dans Malament, B.C., éd., After the Reformation, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1980, pp. 267–290 ;Google Scholar Clark, P., « Visions of the urban community : antiquarians and the English city before 1800 », dans Fraser, D., Sutcliffe, A., eds, The Pursuit of Urban History, Londres, Arnold, 1983, pp. 105–124 ;Google Scholar Stevenson, L., Praise and Paradox: Merchants and Craftsmen in Elizabethan Popular Literature, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984 ;Google Scholar Pocock, J.G.A., Virtue, Commerce and History, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985 ;Google Scholar J.C.D. Clark, loc. cit. ; L. et J.C.F. Stone, loc. cit. ; P. Borsay, loc. cit. ; Wahrman, D., « National society, communal culture an argument about the récent historiography of eighteenth-century Britain », Social History, 17, 1992, pp. 43–72.Google Scholar

25. Pour la documentation sur le XIXe siècle traitant de ces thèmes, voir : Blackbourn, D., Eley, G., The Peculiarities of German History, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1984 ;Google Scholar Wolff, J., Seed, J., eds, The Culture of Capital : Art, Power and the Nineteenth-Century Middle Class, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1988 ;Google Scholar Daunton, M.J., « “Gentlemanly capitalism” and British industry 1820-1914 », Past and Présent, 122,1989, pp. 119–158 Google Scholar (et le débat dans ibid., 132, 1991, pp. 150-187).

26. Allen, D.F., « The rôle of the London trained bands in the Exclusion crisis, 1678-81 », English Historical Review, 87, 1972, pp. 287–303 ;Google Scholar Brewer, J., « The commercialization of politics », dans Mckendrick, N. et alii, Birth of a Consumer Society, Cambridge, Europa, 1980, pp. 197–262 ;Google Scholar O'Malley, P., « From feudal honour to bourgeois réputation », Sociology, 15, 1981, pp. 79–93 ;Google Scholar J. Hoppit, « The use and abuse of crédit in eighteenth-century England », dans N. Mckendrick, R.B. Outhwaite, eds, op. cit., pp. 64-78 ; Hoppit, J., Risk and Failure in English Business 1700-1800, Cambridge, Cambridge Universty Press, 1987 ;Google Scholar O'Brien, P., « The political economy of British taxation 1660-1815 », Economie History Review, 41, 1988, pp. 1–32 ;Google Scholar D.H. Sacks, op. cit., pp. 65-84.

27. Elias, N., The Civilizing Process, Oxford, Blackwell, 1978.Google Scholar (Über den Prozess der Zivilisation, cf. La Civilisation des Moeurs, traduit de l'allemand par Pierre Kamnitzer, Paris, Calmann- Levy, 1973 et La Dynamique de l'Occident, traduit de l'allemand par Pierre Kamnitzer, Paris, Calmann-Levy, 1975).

28. L'étude la plus éclairante sur ce thème jusqu'à présent se trouve dans Rogers, N., « Aristocratie clientage, trade and independency : popular politics in pre-radical Westminster », Past and Présent, 61, 1973, pp. 70–106 ;Google Scholar Hill, C., «Pottage for freeborn Englishmen: attitudes to wage-labour», dans son Change and Continuity in 17c England, London, Wiedenfield and Nicholson, 1974, pp. 219–238 ;Google Scholar Cunningham, H., « The language of patriotism” », History Workshop Journal, 12, 1981, pp. 8–33 ;Google Scholar Stedman Jones, G., Languages of Class, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983 ;Google Scholar Colley, L., « Whose nation ? Class and national consciousness in Britain, 1760-1820», Past and Présent, 113, 1986, pp. 97–117;Google Scholar R.S. Neale, loc. cit.; H. Dickinson, « Precursors of political radicalism in Augustan Britain », dans C. Jones, éd., op. cit., pp. 63-84 ; Epstein, J., « Understanding the cap of liberty : symbolic practice and social conflict in early nineteenth-century England », Past and Présent, 122, 1989, pp. 75–118 ; N. Rogers, loc. cit. Google Scholar

29. Voir Barry, J., « The state and the middle classes in eighteenth-century England », Journal of Historical Sociology, 4, 1991, pp. 75–86 ;CrossRefGoogle Scholar L. Davison et alii, op. cit., pp. XII-LIV.

30. D. Palliser, « The trade guilds of Tudor York », dans P. Clark, P. Slack, eds, loc.cit. ; P. Clark, P. Slack, loc. cit. ; G. Rosser, art. cit. ; N.J. Alldridge, « Loyalty and identity in Chester parishes, 1540-1640», dans S.Wright, éd., op. cit., pp. 85-124 ; Collinson, P., The Birthpangs of Protestant England, Londres, MacMillan, 1988 ; Archer, I., loc. cit. Google Scholar

31. Wright, L.B., Middle-Class Culture in Elizabethan England, nouvelle édition, Cornell, Cornell University Press, 1958.Google Scholar

32. G. Holmes, art. cit. ; J. Barry, « The parish in civic life » ; P. Borsay, loc. cit. ; Barry, J., « The politics of religion in Restoration Bristol », dans Harris, T., Seaward, P., Goldie, M., eds, The Politics of Religion in Restoration England, Oxford, Blackwell, 1990, pp. 163–190 ;Google Scholar Porter, R., English Society in the Eighteenth Century, deuxième édition, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1990 ;Google Scholar Barry, J., « The press and the politics of culture in Bristol, 1660- 1775 », dans Black, J., Gregory, J., eds, Culture, Politics and Society in Britain 1660-1800, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1991, pp. 49–81.Google Scholar

33. J. Brewer, « English radicalism in the âge of George III », dans J.G.A. Pocock, éd., op. cit., pp. 323-367 ; Philipps, J.A., Electoral Behaviour in Unreformed England, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1982 ;Google Scholar Wilson, K., « Empire, trade and popular politics in mid-Hanoverian Britain », Past and Présent, 121, 1988, pp. 74–109 ;Google Scholar Monod, P., Jacobitism and English People, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 1989 ;Google Scholar O'Gorman, F., Voters, Patrons and Parties, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1989 ;Google Scholar N. Rogers, op. cit. ; Bradley, J. E., Religion, Révolution and English Radicalism : Nonconformity in 18C Politics and Society, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990 ;Google Scholar P. Langford, op. cit.

34. J. Triffitt, « Politics and the urban community : parliamentary boroughs in the South- West 1710-30 », Université d'Oxford, thèse de doctorat D. Phil, 1985.

35. Colley, L., « The apotheosis of George III : loyalty, royalty and the British nation 1760- 1820 », Past and Présent, 102, 1984, pp. 94–129 ;Google Scholar Nicholls, D., « The English middle class and the ideological significance of radicalism 1760-1886 », Journal of British Studies, 24, 1985, pp. 415–433 ;Google Scholar L. Colley, « Whose nation ? » ; I. Kramnick, loc. cit. ; J. Money, « Freemasonry and the fabric of loyalism in Hanoverian England » dans E. Hellmuth, éd., op. cit., pp. 235- 271 ; J. Bradley, loc. cit.; J. Seed, art. cit. ; D. Wahrman, art. cit.