Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-21T14:35:24.140Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Drugs as instruments: A new framework for non-addictive psychoactive drug use

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 November 2011

Christian P. Müller  and
Gunter Schumann
Christian P. Müller
Affiliation:
Section of Addiction Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Erlangen–Nuremberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany. christian.mueller@uk-erlangen.dehttp://www.psychiatrie.uk-erlangen.de/wir_ueber_uns/mitarbeiter/e3000/index_ger.html MRC SGDP-Center, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom. Gunter.Schumann@kcl.ac.ukhttp://www.iop.kcl.ac.uk/staff/profile/default.aspx?go=10977
Gunter Schumann
Affiliation:
Section of Addiction Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Erlangen–Nuremberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany. christian.mueller@uk-erlangen.dehttp://www.psychiatrie.uk-erlangen.de/wir_ueber_uns/mitarbeiter/e3000/index_ger.html
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Most people who are regular consumers of psychoactive drugs are not drug addicts, nor will they ever become addicts. In neurobiological theories, non-addictive drug consumption is acknowledged only as a “necessary” prerequisite for addiction, but not as a stable and widespread behavior in its own right. This target article proposes a new neurobiological framework theory for non-addictive psychoactive drug consumption, introducing the concept of “drug instrumentalization.” Psychoactive drugs are consumed for their effects on mental states. Humans are able to learn that mental states can be changed on purpose by drugs, in order to facilitate other, non-drug-related behaviors. We discuss specific “instrumentalization goals” and outline neurobiological mechanisms of how major classes of psychoactive drugs change mental states and serve non-drug-related behaviors. We argue that drug instrumentalization behavior may provide a functional adaptation to modern environments based on a historical selection for learning mechanisms that allow the dynamic modification of consummatory behavior. It is assumed that in order to effectively instrumentalize psychoactive drugs, the establishment of and retrieval from a drug memory is required. Here, we propose a new classification of different drug memory subtypes and discuss how they interact during drug instrumentalization learning and retrieval. Understanding the everyday utility and the learning mechanisms of non-addictive psychotropic drug use may help to prevent abuse and the transition to drug addiction in the future.

Keywords

addictiondrug instrumentalizationdrug memoryevolutionmental states
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 34 , Issue 6 , December 2011 , pp. 293 - 310
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adell, A., Bortolozzi, A., Diaz-Mataix, L., Santana, N., Celada, P. & Artigas, F. (2010) Serotonin interaction with other neurotransmitter systems. In: Handbook of the behavioral neurobiology of serotonin, ed. Müller, C. P. & Jacobs, B. L., pp. 259–76. Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aghajanian, G. K. & Marek, G. J. (1997) Serotonin induces excitatory postsynaptic potentials in apical dendrites of neocortical pyramidal cells. Neuropharmacology 36:589–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alexander, B. K. (1987) The disease and adaptive models of addiction: A framework analysis. Journal of Drug Issues 17:47–66.Google Scholar
Alexander, B. K. (1990) The empirical and theoretical bases for an adaptive model of addiction. Journal of Drug Issues 20:29–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allison, C. & Pratt, J. A. (2003) Neuroadaptive processes in GABAergic and glutamatergic systems in benzodiazepine dependence. Pharmacology and Therapeutics 98:171–95.Google Scholar
Alvergne, A., Jokela, M. & Lummaa, V. (2010) Personality and reproductive success in a high-fertility human population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 107(26):11745–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amendt, G. (2003) No drugs no future. Europa Verlag.Google Scholar
Ameri, A. (1999) The effects of cannabinoids on the brain. Progress in Neurobiology 58:315–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed. (DSM-IV). American Psychiatric Press Inc.Google Scholar
Anders, G. (1956) Die Antiquiertheit des Menschen, Band 1: Über die Seele im Zeitalter der zweiten industriellen Revolution [The obsolescence of human beings, volume 1: The soul in the age of the second industrial revolution]. C. H. Beck.Google Scholar
Anderson, P. & Baumberg, B. (2006) Alcohol in Europe. Institute of Alcohol Studies.Google Scholar
Andreasson, S., Allebeck, P., Engstrom, A. & Rydberg, U. (1987) Cannabis and schizophrenia. A longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts. Lancet 2(8574):1483–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andreasson, S., Allebeck, P. & Rydberg, U. (1989) Schizophrenia in users and nonusers of cannabis. A longitudinal study in Stockholm County. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia 79(5):505–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arria, A. M. & Wish, E. D. (2006) Nonmedical use of prescription stimulants among students. Pediatric Annals 35:565–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arroyo, M., Markou, A., Robbins, T. W. & Everitt, B. J. (1998) Acquisition, maintenance and reinstatement of intravenous cocaine self-administration under a second-order schedule of reinforcement in rats: Effects of conditioned cues and continuous access to cocaine. Psychopharmacology 140(3):331–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aston-Jones, G., Rajkowski, J. & Cohen, J. (1999) Role of locus coeruleus in attention and behavioral flexibility. Biological Psychiatry 46:1309–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Axelrod, R. & Hamilton, W. D. (1981) The evolution of cooperation. Science 211(4489):1390–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A. (1977) Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review 84(2):191–215.Google Scholar
Bardo, M. T. (1998) Neuropharmacological mechanisms of drug reward: Beyond dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. Critical Reviews in Neurobiology 12:37–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bardo, M. T. & Bevins, R. A. (2000) Conditioned place preference: What does it add to our preclinical understanding of drug reward? Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 153(1):31–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baum-Baicker, C. (1985) The psychological benefits of moderate alcohol consumption: A review of the literature. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 15:305–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belin, D. & Everitt, B. J. (2008) Cocaine seeking habits depend upon dopamine-dependent serial connectivity linking the ventral with the dorsal striatum. Neuron 57(3):432–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berridge, K. C. (1996) Food reward: Brain substrates of wanting and liking. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 20:1–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berridge, K. C. & Robinson, T. E. (2003) Parsing reward. Trends in Neurosciences 26:507–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bierut, L. J., Dinwiddie, S. H., Begleiter, H., Crowe, R. R., Hesselbrock, V., Nurnberger, J. I. Jr., Porjesz, B., Schuckit, M. A. & Reich, T. (1998) Familial transmission of substance dependence: Alcohol, marihuana, cocaine, and habitual smoking: A report from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism. Archives of General Psychiatry 55:982–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blokland, A. (1995) Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter for learning and memory? Brain Research Reviews 21:285–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blomeyer, D., Treutlein, J., Esser, G., Schmidt, M. H., Schumann, G. & Laucht, M. (2008) Interaction between CRHR1 gene and stressful life events predicts adolescent heavy alcohol use. Biological Psychiatry 63(2):146–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boening, J. A. (2001) Neurobiology of an addiction memory. Journal of Neural Transmission 108 (6):755–65.Google Scholar
Bonn-Miller, M. O., Zvolensky, M. J. & Bernstein, A. (2007) Marihuana use motives: Concurrent relations to frequency of past 30-day use and anxiety sensitivity among young adult marihuana smokers. Addictive Behavior 32:49–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Booth, C. & Hasking, P. (2009) Social anxiety and alcohol consumption: The role of alcohol expectancies and reward sensitivity. Addictive Behaviors 34(9):730–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borsini, F., Bendotti, C., Carli, M., Poggesi, E. & Samanin, R. (1979) The roles of brain noradrenaline and dopamine in the anorectic activity of diethylpropion in rats: A comparison with d-amphetamine. Research Communications in Chemical Pathology and Pharmacology 26:3–11.Google ScholarPubMed
Bouton, M. E. & Moody, E. W. (2004) Memory processes in classical conditioning. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 28(7):663–74.Google Scholar
Boyd, C. J., McCabe, S. E., Cranford, J. A. & Young, A. (2006) Adolescents' motivations to abuse prescription medications. Pediatrics 118(6):2472–80.Google Scholar
Boyd, C. J., Teter, C. J., West, B. T., Morales, M. & McCabe, S. E. (2009) Non-medical use of prescription analgesics: A three-year national longitudinal study. Journal of Addictive Diseases 28:232–42.Google Scholar
Boys, A. & Marsden, J. (2003) Perceived functions predict intensity of use and problems in young polysubstance users. Addiction 98(7):951–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boys, A., Marsden, J., Griffiths, P., Fountain, J., Stillwell, G. & Strang, J. (1999) Substance use among young people: The relationship between perceived functions and intentions. Addiction 94(7):1043–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boys, A., Marsden, J. & Strang, J. (2001) Understanding reasons for drug use amongst young people: A functional perspective. Health Education Research 16:457–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradizza, C. M., Reifman, A. & Barnes, G. M. (1999) Social and coping reasons for drinking: Predicting alcohol misuse in adolescents. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 60:491–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brischoux, F., Chakraborty, S., Brierley, D. I. & Ungless, M. A. (2009) Phasic excitation of dopamine neurons in ventral VTA by noxious stimuli. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106:4894–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Britt, G. C. & McCance-Katz, E. F. (2005) A brief overview of the clinical pharmacology of “club drugs.” Substance Use and Misuse 40:1189–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994) Ecological models of human development. In: International encyclopedia of education, pp. 1643–47. Elsevier Sciences.Google Scholar
Brower, K. J. (2002) Anabolic steroid abuse and dependence. Current Psychiatry Reports 4:377–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, J. H. & Kreft, I. G. (1998) Zero effects of drug prevention programs: Issues and solutions. Evaluation Review 22:3–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, S. A. (1985) Expectancies versus background in the prediction of college drinking patterns. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 53:123–30.Google Scholar
Brown, S. A., Goldman, M. S., Inn, A. & Anderson, L. R. (1980) Expectations of reinforcement from alcohol: Their domain and relation to drinking patterns. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 48:419–26.Google Scholar
Bruehl, A. M., Lende, D. H., Schwartz, M., Sterk, C. E. & Elifson, K. (2006) Craving and control: Methamphetamine users' narratives. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (Suppl. 3):385–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burnett, S., Sebastian, C., Cohen, K. K. & Blakemore, S. J. (2010) The social brain in adolescence: Evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging and behavioural studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioural Reviews. DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.10.011.Google Scholar
Campbell, J. C., Szumlinski, K. K. & Kippin, T. E. (2009) Contribution of early environmental stress to alcoholism vulnerability. Alcohol 43(7):547–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carey, R. J., DePalma, G., Damianopoulos, E., Hopkins, A., Shanahan, A., Müller, C. P. & Huston, J. P. (2004) Dopaminergic and serotonergic autoreceptor stimulation effects are equivalent and additive in the suppression of spontaneous and cocaine induced locomotor activity. Brain Research 1019:134–43.Google Scholar
Carey, R. J., Huston, J. P. & Müller, C. P. (2008) Pharmacological inhibition of dopamine and serotonin activity blocks spontaneous and cocaine-activated behaviour. Progress in Brain Research 172:347–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carr, G. V. & Lucki, I. (2010) The role of serotonin in depression. In: Handbook of the behavioral neurobiology of serotonin, ed. Müller, C. P. & Jacobs, B. L., pp. 493–506. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Carrigan, M. H., Ham, L. S., Thomas, S. E. & Randall, C. L. (2008) Alcohol outcome expectancies and drinking to cope with social situations. Addictive Behaviors 33(9):1162–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castren, E. (2005) Is mood chemistry? Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6:241–46.Google Scholar
Cato, B. M. (1992) Youth's recreation and drug sensations: Is there a relationship? Journal of Drug Education 22:293–301.Google Scholar
Cauli, O. & Morelli, M. (2005) Caffeine and the dopaminergic system. Behavioral Pharmacology 16:63–77.Google Scholar
Charlson, F., Degenhardt, L., McLaren, J., Hall, W. & Lynskey, M. (2009) A systematic review of research examining benzodiazepine-related mortality. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety 18(2):93–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, C. Y. & Anthony, J. C. (2004) Epidemiological estimates of risk in the process of becoming dependent upon cocaine: Cocaine hydrochloride powder versus crack cocaine. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 172:78–86.Google Scholar
Chick, J. (1999) Can light or moderate drinking benefit mental health? European Addiction Research 5:74–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Childs, E. & de Wit, H. (2009) Amphetamine-induced place preference in humans. Biological Psychiatry 65(10):900–904.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chisholm, J. S. (1993) Life-history theory and the development of reproductive strategies. Current Anthropology 34(1):1–24.Google Scholar
Chisholm, J. S. (1999) Death, hope, and sex: Steps to an evolutionary ecology of mind and mortality, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Clarke, T. K. & Schumann, G. (2009) Gene-environment interactions resulting in risk alcohol drinking behaviour are mediated by CRF and CRF1. Pharmacology Biochemistry & Behavior 93(3):230–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clayton, D. H. & Wolfe, N. D. (1993) The adaptive significance of self-medication. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 8(2):60–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conrod, P. J., Pihl, R. O., Stewart, S. H. & Dongier, M. (2000) Validation of a system of classifying female substance abusers on the basis of personality and motivational risk factors for substance abuse. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 14:243–56.Google Scholar
Conrod, P. J., Stewart, S. H., Comeau, N. & Maclean, A. M. (2006) Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral interventions targeting personality risk factors for youth alcohol misuse. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 35:550–63.Google Scholar
Cooper, M. L. (2006) Does drinking promote risky sexual behaviour? A complex answer to a simple question. Current Directions in Psychological Science 15(1):19–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, M. L., Frone, M. R., Russell, M. & Mudar, P. (1995) Drinking to regulate positive and negative emotions: A motivational model of alcohol use. Journal of Personal and Social Psychology 69:990–1005.Google Scholar
Cooper, M. L., Russell, M. & George, W. H. (1988) Coping, expectancies, and alcohol abuse: A test of social learning formulations. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 97:218–30.Google Scholar
Cooper, M. L., Russell, M., Skinner, J. B., Frone, M. R. & Mudar, P. (1992) Stress and alcohol use: Moderating effects of gender, coping, and alcohol expectancies. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 101:139–52.Google Scholar
Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J. (1994) Origins of domain specificity: The evolution of functional organization. In Mapping the mind: Domain specificity in cognition and culture, ed. Hirschfeld, L. & Gelman, S., pp. 85–116. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J. (1999) Toward an evolutionary taxonomy of treatable conditions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 108(3):453–64.Google Scholar
Crawford, C. (2000) Evolutionary psychology: Counting babies or studying information-processing mechanisms. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 97:21–38.Google Scholar
Crowe, L. C. & George, W. H. (1989) Alcohol and human sexuality: Review and integration. Psychological Bulletin 105(3):374–86.Google Scholar
Curran, H. V. (1991) Benzodiazepines, memory and mood: A review. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 105:1–8.Google Scholar
Davey, J., Richards, N. & Freeman, J. (2007) Fatigue and beyond: Patterns of and motivations for illicit drug use among long-haul truck drivers. Traffic Injury Prevention 8:253–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, J. B. (1997) The myth of addiction, 2nd edition. Routledge.Google Scholar
De las Cuevas, C., Sanz, E. & De la Fuente, J. (2003) Benzodiazepines: More “behavioural” addiction than dependence. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 167:297–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Wit, H. & Stewart, J. (1981) Reinstatement of cocaine-reinforced responding in the rat. Psychopharmacology 75(2):134–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Decker, M. W., Brioni, J. D., Bannon, A. W. & Arneric, S. P. (1995) Diversity of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: Lessons from behavior and implications for CNS therapeutics. Life Sciences 56:545–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Del Boca, F. K., Darkes, J., Goldman, M. S. & Smith, G. T. (2002) Advancing the expectancy concept via the interplay between theory and research. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 26(6):926–35.Google Scholar
Dere, E., Easton, A., Nadel, L. & Huston, J. P. (2008) Handbook of episodic memory. Elsevier.Google Scholar
Devineni, A. V. & Heberlein, U. (2009) Preferential ethanol consumption in Drosophila models features of addiction. Current Biology 19(24):2126–32.Google Scholar
Di Chiara, G. (1995) The role of dopamine in drug abuse viewed from the perspective of its role in motivation. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 38:95–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Di Chiara, G. & Imperato, A. (1988) Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 85:5274–78.Google Scholar
Di Chiara, G. & North, R. A. (1992) Neurobiology of opiate abuse. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 13:185–93.Google Scholar
Donovan, J. E. & Richard, J. (1985) Structure of problem behavior in adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 53(6):890–904.Google Scholar
Dudley, R. (2000) Evolutionary origins of human alcoholism in primate frugivory. The Quarterly Review of Biology 75(1):3–15.Google Scholar
Dudley, R. (2002) Fermenting fruit and the historical ecology of ethanol ingestion: Is alcoholism in modern humans an evolutionary hangover? Addiction 97:381–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eissenberg, T. & Balster, R. L. (2000) Initial tobacco use episodes in children and adolescents: Current knowledge, future directions. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 59(Suppl. 1):S41–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
EMCDDA (European Monitoring Centre for Addictive Drugs) (2009) State of the drug problem 2009. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/drug-situation.Google Scholar
Emley, G. S. & Hutchinson, R. R. (1983) Unique influences of 10 drugs upon post-shock biting attack and preshock manual responding. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 19:5–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Everitt, B. J. & Wolf, M. E. (2002) Psychomotor stimulant addiction: A neural systems perspective. Journal of Neuroscience 22(9):3312–20.Google Scholar
Fantegrossi, W. E., Woolverton, W. L., Kilbourn, M., Sherman, P., Yuan, J., Hatzidimitriou, G., Ricaurte, G. A., Woods, J. H. & Winger, G. (2004) Behavioral and neurochemical consequences of long-term intravenous self-administration of MDMA and its enantiomers by rhesus monkeys. Neuropsychopharmacology 29(7):1270–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feenstra, M. G. P., Botterblom, M. H. A. & Vanuum, J. F. M. (1995) Novelty-induced increase in dopamine release in the rat prefrontal cortex in-vivo – Inhibition by diazepam. Neuroscience Letters 189:81–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Felder, C. C. & Glass, M. (1998) Cannabinoid receptors and their endogenous agonists. Annual Reviews of Pharmacology and Toxicology 38:179–200.Google Scholar
Feldman, R. S., Meyer, J. S. & Quenzer, L. F. (1997) Principles of Neuropsychopharmacology. Sinauer Associates.Google Scholar
Fischman, M. W. & Schuster, C. R. (1980) Cocaine effects in sleep-deprived humans. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 72:1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fischman, M. W. & Schuster, C. R. (1982) Cocaine self-administration in humans. Federal Proceedings 41:241–46.Google ScholarPubMed
Foltin, R. W. & Haney, M. (2000) Conditioned effects of environmental stimuli paired with smoked cocaine in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 149(1):24–33.Google Scholar
Friedman, L. S., Lichtenstein, E. & Biglan, A. (1985) Smoking onset among teens: An empirical analysis of initial situations. Addictive Behaviors 10:1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frolov, A. G. & Pavlova, O. G. (2003) Instrumentalization of movements evoked by stimulation of the motor cortex by food reinforcement in dogs. Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology 33:203–207.Google Scholar
Gable, R. S. (2004) Comparison of acute lethal toxicity of commonly abused psychoactive substances. Addiction 99:686–96.Google Scholar
Garattini, S., Borroni, E., Mennini, T. & Samanin, R. (1978) Differences and similarities among anorectic agents. In: Central mechanisms of anorectic drugs, ed. Garattini, S. & Samanin, R.. Raven Press.Google Scholar
Gawin, F. H. (1991) Cocaine addiction: Psychology and neurophysiology. Science 251:1580–86.Google Scholar
Gawin, F. H. & Kleber, H. D. (1986) Abstinence symptomatology and psychiatric diagnosis in cocaine abusers. Clinical observations. Archives of General Psychiatry 43:107–13.Google Scholar
Geyer, M. A. & Vollenweider, F. X. (2008) Serotonin research: Contributions to understanding psychoses. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 29(9):445–53.Google Scholar
Glander, K. E. (1994) Nonhuman primate self-medication with wild plant foods. In: Eating on the wild side: The pharmacological, ecological, and social implications of using noncultigens, ed. Etkin, N. L., pp. 239–56. University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Glynn, R. J., LoCastro, J. S., Hermos, J. A. & Bosse, R. (1983) Social contexts and motives for drinking in men. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 44:1011–25.Google Scholar
Goldberg, S. R. (1975) Stimuli associated with drug injections as events that control behavior. Pharmacological Review 27(3):325–40.Google ScholarPubMed
Goldman, D., Oroszi, G. & Ducci, F. (2005) The genetics of addictions: Uncovering the genes. Nature Reviews Genetics 6:521–32.Google Scholar
Goldman, M. S., Brown, S. A., Christiansen, B. A. & Smith, G. T. (1991) Alcoholism and memory: Broadening the scope of alcohol-expectancy research. Psychological Bulletin 110(1):137–46.Google Scholar
Goldstein, P. J. (1990) Anabolic steroids: An ethnographic approach. NIDA Research Monographs 102:74–96.Google ScholarPubMed
Gonzalez-Maeso, J. & Sealfon, S. C. (2009) Psychedelics and schizophrenia. Trends in Neurosciences 32:225–32.Google Scholar
Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E. & Daumann, J. (2009) Neurotoxicity of drugs of abuse – The case of methylenedioxyamphetamines (MDMA, ecstasy), and amphetamines. Dialogues in Clinical Neurosciences 11(3):305–17.Google Scholar
Green, A. R., Mechan, A. O., Elliott, J. M., O'Shea, E. & Colado, M. I. (2003) The pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “ecstasy”). Pharmacological Reviews 55:463–508.Google Scholar
Griffiths, R. R., Lamb, R. J., Sannerud, C. A., Ator, N. A. & Brady, J. V. (1991) Self-injection of barbiturates, benzodiazepines and other sedative-anxiolytics in baboons. Psychopharmacology 103:154–61.Google Scholar
Grinspoon, L. & Hedblom, P. (2005) A historical overview of amphetamines. In: Amphetamines, ed. Harris, N., pp. 19–30. Thomson Gale.Google Scholar
Gustafson, R. (1991) Is the strength and the desirability of alcohol-related expectancies positively related? A test with an adult Swedish sample. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 28:145–50.Google Scholar
Haber, S. N., Fudge, J. L. & McFarland, N. R. (2000) Striatonigrostriatal pathways in primates form an ascending spiral from the shell to the dorsolateral striatum. The Journal of Neuroscience 20(6):2369–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hagen, E. H., Sullivan, R. J., Schmidt, R., Morris, G., Kempter, R. & Hammerstein, P. (2009) Ecology and neurobiology of toxin avoidance and the paradox of drug reward. Neuroscience 160(1):69–84.Google Scholar
Hahn, B. & Stolerman, I. P. (2002) Nicotine-induced attentional enhancement in rats: Effects of chronic exposure to nicotine. Neuropsychopharmacology 27:712–22.Google Scholar
Hahn, B., Shoaib, M. & Stolerman, I. P. (2002) Nicotine-induced enhancement of attention in the five-choice serial reaction time task: The influence of task demands. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 162:129–37.Google Scholar
Halberstadt, A. L. & Nichols, D. E. (2010) Serotonin and serotonin receptors in hallucinogen action. In: Handbook of the behavioral neurobiology of serotonin, ed. Müller, C. P. & Jacobs, B. L., pp. 621–36. Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:1–16.Google Scholar
Haney, M., Maccari, S., Le, M. M., Simon, H. & Piazza, P. V. (1995) Social stress increases the acquisition of cocaine self-administration in male and female rats. Brain Research 698:46–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harding, W. & Zinberg, N. E. (1977) The effectiveness of the subculture in developing rituals and social sanctions for controlled drug use. In Drugs, rituals and altered states of consciousness, ed. Du Toit, B. M., pp. 111–33. A. A. Balkema.Google Scholar
Harper, C. (2007) The neurotoxicity of alcohol. Human & Experimental Toxicology 26(3):251–57.Google Scholar
Harris, R. A., Trudell, J. R. & Mihic, S. J. (2008) Ethanol's molecular targets. Science Signaling 1(28):re7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, A. A., Gasparini, F. & Markou, A. (2002) Nicotine potentiation of brain stimulation reward reversed by DH beta E and SCH 23390, but not by eticlopride, LY 314582 or MPEP in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 160:56–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heath, D. B. (2000) Drinking occasions: Comparative perspectives on alcohol and culture. Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Heberlein, A., Bleich, S., Kornhuber, J. & Hillemacher, T. (2009) Benzodiazepine dependence: Causalities and treatment options. Fortschritte der Neurologie und Psychiatrie 77:7–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heilig, M. & Koob, G. F. (2007) A key role for corticotropin-releasing factor in alcohol dependence. Trends in Neurosciences 30:399–406.Google Scholar
Heyman, G. M. (1996) Resolving the contradictions of addiction. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 19(4):561–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heyne, A., May, T., Goll, P. & Wolffgramm, J. (2000) Persisting consequences of drug intake: Towards a memory of addiction. Journal of Neural Transmission 107(6):613–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higgins, S. T., Bickel, W. K., Hughes, J. R., Lynn, M., Capeless, M. A. & Fenwick, J. W. (1990) Effects of intranasal cocaine on human learning, performance and physiology. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 102:451–58.Google Scholar
Hill, E. M. & Chow, K. (2002) Life-history theory and risky drinking. Addiction 97(4):401–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, E. M. & Newlin, D. B. (2002) Evolutionary approaches to addiction: Introduction. Addiction 97(4):375–79.Google Scholar
Ho, Y. J., Pawlak, C. R., Guo, L., Schwarting, R. K. (2004) Acute and long-term consequences of single MDMA administration in relation to individual anxiety levels in the rat. Behavioural Brain Research 149(2):135–44.Google Scholar
Hollerman, J. R. & Schultz, W. (1998) Dopamine neurons report an error in the temporal prediction of reward during learning. Nature Neuroscience 1:304–309.Google Scholar
Hong, Z. Y., Huang, Z. L., Qu, W. M., Eguchi, N., Urade, Y. & Hayaishi, O. (2005) An adenosine A(2A) receptor agonist induces sleep by increasing GABA release in the tuberomammillary nucleus to inhibit histaminergic systems in rats. Journal of Neurochemistry 92:1542–49.Google Scholar
Howell, L. L. & Byrd, L. D. (1995) Serotonergic modulation of the behavioral effects of cocaine in the squirrel monkey. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 275(3):1551–59.Google Scholar
Huffman, M. A. (2003) Animal self-medication and ethno-medicine: Exploration and exploitation of the medicinal properties of plants. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62(2):371–81.Google Scholar
Hughes, J. R., Hatsukami, D. K., Mitchell, J. E. & Dahlgren, L. A. (1986) Prevalence of smoking among psychiatric outpatients. American Journal of Psychiatry 143:993–97.Google ScholarPubMed
Huston, J. P., Haas, H. L., Boix, F., Pfister, M., Decking, U., Schrader, J. & Schwarting, R. K. (1996) Extracellular adenosine levels in neostriatum and hippocampus during rest and activity periods of rats. Neuroscience 73:99–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ikemoto, S. & Panksepp, J. (1999) The role of nucleus accumbens dopamine in motivated behavior: A unifying interpretation with special reference to reward-seeking. Brain Research Reviews 31:6–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ito, T., Suzuki, T., Wellman, S. E. & Ho, I. K. (1996) Pharmacology of barbiturate tolerance/dependence: GABAA receptors and molecular aspects. Life Sciences 59:169–95.Google Scholar
Iversen, L. L. (2000) The science of marijuana. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jacobs, B. L. & Fornal, C. A. (2010) Activity of brain serotonergic neurons in relation to physiology and behavior. In: Handbook of the behavioral neurobiology of serotonin, ed. Müller, C. P. & Jacobs, B. L., pp. 153–62. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Jacobsen, L. K., Southwick, S. M. & Kosten, T. R. (2001) Substance use disorders in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder: A review of the literature. American Journal of Psychiatry 158:1184–90.Google Scholar
Javaid, J. I., Fischman, M. W., Schuster, C. R., Dekirmenjian, H. & Davis, J. M. (1978) Cocaine plasma concentration: Relation to physiological and subjective effects in humans. Science 202:227–28.Google Scholar
Jentsch, J. D. & Roth, R. H. (1999) The neuropsychopharmacology of phencyclidine: From NMDA receptor hypofunction to the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 20:201–25.Google Scholar
Jessor, R. (1987) Problem-behavior theory, psychosocial development, and adolescent problem drinking. British Journal of Addiction 82(4):331–42.Google Scholar
Jo, Y. H., Talmage, D. A. & Role, L. W. (2002) Nicotinic receptor-mediated effects on appetite and food intake. Journal of Neurobiology 53:618–32.Google Scholar
Johanson, C. E., Balster, R. L. & Bonese, K. (1976) Self-administration of psychomotor stimulant drugs: The effects of unlimited access. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 4:45–51.Google Scholar
Johanson, C. E. & Fischman, M. W. (1989) The pharmacology of cocaine related to its abuse. Pharmacological Reviews 41:3–52.Google ScholarPubMed
Johnson, C., Beaton, R. & Hall, K. (1975) Poison-based avoidance learning in nonhuman primates: Use of visual cues. Physiology & Behavior 14(4):403–407.Google Scholar
Johnstone, B. M., Leino, E. V., Ager, C. R., Ferrer, H. & Fillmore, K. M. (1996) Determinants of life-course variation in the frequency of alcohol consumption: Meta-analysis of studies from the collaborative alcohol-related longitudinal project. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 57(5):494–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R. T. (1971) Marihuana-induced “high”: Influence of expectation, setting and previous drug experience. Pharmacological Reviews 23:359–69.Google Scholar
Kabbaj, M., Norton, C. S., Kollack-Walker, S., Watson, S. J., Robinson, T. E. & Akil, H. (2001) Social defeat alters the acquisition of cocaine self-administration in rats: Role of individual differences in cocaine-taking behavior. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 158:382–87.Google ScholarPubMed
Kalivas, P. W., Sorg, B. A. & Hooks, M. S. (1993) The pharmacology and neural circuitry of sensitization to psychostimulants. Behavioural Pharmacology 4:315–34.Google Scholar
Kalivas, P. W. & Volkow, N. D. (2005) The neural basis of addiction: A pathology of motivation and choice. American Journal of Psychiatry 162:1403–13.Google Scholar
Kanayama, G., Brower, K. J., Wood, R. I., Hudson, J. I. & Pope, H. G. Jr. (2009) Anabolic–androgenic steroid dependence: An emerging disorder. Addiction 104:1966–78.Google Scholar
Kandel, E. R. (2001) The molecular biology of memory storage: A dialogue between genes and synapses. Science 294:1030–38.Google Scholar
Kelley, A. E., Cador, M. & Stinus, L. (1990) Exploration and its measurement. A psychopharmacological perspective. In: Neuromethods 13 – Psychopharmacology, ed. Boulton, A. A., Baker, G. B. & Greenshaw, A. J., pp. 95–143. Humana Press.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Jacobson, K. C., Prescott, C. A. & Neale, M. C. (2003b) Specificity of genetic and environmental risk factors for use and abuse/dependence of cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, sedatives, stimulants, and opiates in male twins. American Journal of Psychiatry 160:687–95.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Prescott, C. A., Myers, J. & Neale, M. C. (2003a) The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for common psychiatric and substance use disorders in men and women. Archives of General Psychiatry 60:929–37.Google Scholar
Kenny, P. J. & Markou, A. (2006) Nicotine self-administration acutely activates brain reward systems and induces a long-lasting increase in reward sensitivity. Neuropsychopharmacology 31:1203–11.Google Scholar
Kester, K. M. & Barbosa, P. (1994) Behavioral responses to host food plants of two populations of the insect parasitoid Cotesia congregata (Say). Oecologia 99:151–57.Google Scholar
Khantzian, E. J. (1985) The self-medication hypothesis of addictive disorders: Focus on heroin and cocaine dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry 142:1259–64.Google Scholar
Khantzian, E. J. (1997) The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: A reconsideration and recent applications. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 4:231–44.Google Scholar
Kidorf, M., Sherman, M. F., Johnson, J. G. & Bigelow, G. E. (1995) Alcohol expectancies and changes in beer consumption of first-year college students. Addictive Behaviors 20(2):225–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, A. J., Johnson, D. D. & Van Vugt, M. (2009) The origins and evolution of leadership. Current Biology 19(19):R911–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochakian, C. D. (1990) History of anabolic–androgenic steroids. NIDA Research Monographs 102:29–59.Google ScholarPubMed
Koob, G. F. (1992) Drugs of abuse: Anatomy, pharmacology and function of reward pathways. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 13:177–84.Google Scholar
Koob, G. F. (1999) Stress, corticotropin-releasing factor, and drug addiction. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 897:27–45.Google Scholar
Koob, G. F. & Le Moal, M. (1997) Drug abuse: Hedonic homeostatic dysregulation. Science 278:52–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koob, G. F. & Le Moal, M. (2008) Addiction and the brain antireward system. Annual Review of Psychology 59:29–53.Google Scholar
Koob, G. F., Sanna, P. P. & Bloom, F. E. (1998) Neuroscience of addiction. Neuron 21:467–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kramer, J. C., Fischman, V. S. & Littlefield, D. C. (1967) Amphetamine abuse – Pattern and effects of high doses taken intravenously. Journal of the American Medical Association 201:89–93.Google Scholar
Kreek, M. J., Nielsen, D. A., Butelman, E. R. & Laforge, K. S. (2005) Genetic influences on impulsivity, risk taking, stress responsivity and vulnerability to drug abuse and addiction. Nature Neuroscience 8:1450–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuntsche, E., Knibbe, R., Gmel, G. & Engels, R. (2005) Why do young people drink? A review of drinking motives. Clinical Psychology Review 25:841–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuntsche, E., Knibbe, R., Gmel, G. & Engels, R. (2006) Who drinks and why? A review of socio-demographic, personality, and contextual issues behind the drinking motives in young people. Addictive Behavior 31:1844–57.Google Scholar
Lader, M. (1994) Anxiolytic drugs: Dependence, addiction and abuse. European Neuropsychopharmacology 4:85–91.Google Scholar
Laland, K. N., Odling-Smee, J. & Feldman, M. W. (2000) Niche construction, biological evolution, and cultural change. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 23(1):131–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laland, K. N., Odling-Smee, J. & Myles, S. (2010) How culture shaped the human genome: Bringing genetics and the human sciences together. Nature Reviews Genetics 11(2):137–48.Google Scholar
Lavikainen, H. M., Lintonen, T. & Kosunen, E. (2009) Sexual behavior and drinking style among teenagers: A population-based study in Finland. Health Promotion International 24(2):108–19.Google Scholar
Le Foll, B. & Goldberg, S. R. (2006) Nicotine as a typical drug of abuse in experimental animals and humans. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 184:367–81.Google Scholar
Leigh, B. C. (1989) In search of the Seven Dwarves: Issues of measurement and meaning in alcohol expectancy research. Psychological Bulletin 105(3):361–73.Google Scholar
Leigh, B. C. & Stacy, A. W. (2004) Alcohol expectancies and drinking in different age groups. Addiction 99(2):215–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lende, D. H. (2005) Wanting and drug use: A biocultural approach to the analysis of addiction. ETHOS 33(1):100–24.Google Scholar
Lende, D. H. (2007) Evolution and modern behavioral problems. In: Evolutionary medicine and health: New perspectives, ed. Wenda Trevathan, E. O., Smith, E. O. & McKenna, J. J., pp. 277–90, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lende, D. H., Leonard, T., Sterk, C. E. & Elifson, K. (2007) Functional methamphetamine use: The insider's perspective. Addiction Research and Therapy 15(5):465–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lende, D. H. & Smith, E. O. (2002) Evolution meets biopsychosociality: An analysis of addictive behavior. Addiction 97(4):447–58.Google Scholar
Leonard, K. E. & Das Eiden, R. (1999) Husband's and wife's drinking: Unilateral or bilateral influences among newlyweds in a general population sample. Journal of Studies on Alcohol Supplement 13:130–38.Google Scholar
Licata, A., Taylor, S., Berman, M. & Cranston, J. (1993) Effects of cocaine on human aggression. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 45:549–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liechti, M. E., Saur, M. R., Gamma, A., Hell, D. & Vollenweider, F. X. (2000) Psychological and physiological effects of MDMA (“Ecstasy”) after pretreatment with the 5-HT(2) antagonist ketanserin in healthy humans. Neuropsychopharmacology 23:396–404.Google Scholar
Lipton, R. I. (1994) The effect of moderate alcohol use on the relationship between stress and depression. American Journal of Public Health 84:1913–17.Google Scholar
Lisonbee, L. D., Villalba, J. J., Provenza, F. D. & Hall, J. O. (2009) Tannins and self-medication: Implications for sustainable parasite control in herbivores. Behavioural Processes 82(2):184–89.Google Scholar
Lozano, G. A. (1998) Parasitic stress and self-medication in wild animals. Advances in the Study of Behavior 27:291–317.Google Scholar
Maier, H. W. (1926) Der Kokainismus. Georg Thieme.Google Scholar
Maisonneuve, I. M., Ho, A. & Kreek, M. J. (1995) Chronic administration of a cocaine “binge” alters basal extracellular levels in male rats: An in vivo microdialysis study. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 272:652–57.Google Scholar
Maloff, D., Becker, H. S., Fonaroff, A. & Rodin, J. (1981) Informal social controls and their influence on substance use. In: Control over intoxicant use: Pharmacological, psychological and social considerations, ed. Zinberg, N. E. & Harding, W., pp. 5–35. Human Science Press.Google Scholar
Mansvelder, H. D., van Aerde, K. I., Couey, J. J. & Brussaard, A. B. (2006) Nicotinic modulation of neuronal networks: From receptors to cognition. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 184:292–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcuse, L. (1984) Philosophie des Glücks. Diogenes.Google Scholar
Markou, A. (2008) Neurobiology of nicotine dependence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London B Biological Sciences 363:3159–68.Google Scholar
Markou, A., Kosten, T. R. & Koob, G. F. (1998) Neurobiological similarities in depression and drug dependence: A self-medication hypothesis. Neuropsychopharmacology 18:135–74.Google Scholar
Marlatt, G. A. & George, W. H. (1984) Relapse prevention: Introduction and overview of the model. British Journal of Addiction 79(3):261–73.Google Scholar
Marsicano, G., Wotjak, C. T., Azad, S. C., Bisogno, T., Rammes, G., Cascio, M. G., Hermann, H., Tang, J., Hofmann, C., Zieglgansberger, W., Di Marzo, V. & Lutz, B. (2002) The endogenous cannabinoid system controls extinction of aversive memories. Nature 418:530–34.Google Scholar
Martel, P. & Fantino, M. (1996) Mesolimbic dopaminergic system activity as a function of food reward: A microdialysis study. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 53:221–26.Google Scholar
Matsumoto, M. & Hikosaka, O. (2009) Two types of dopamine neuron distinctly convey positive and negative motivational signals. Nature 459:837–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matthews, T. J., Abdelbaky, P. & Pfaff, D. W. (2005) Social and sexual motivation in the mouse. Behavioral Neuroscience 119(6):1628–39.Google Scholar
McBride, W. J., Le, A. D. & Noronha, A. (2002) Central nervous system mechanisms in alcohol relapse. Alcohol Clinical and Experimental Research 26:280–86.Google Scholar
McBride, W. J., Murphy, J. M. & Ikemoto, S. (1999) Localization of brain reinforcement mechanisms: Intracranial self-administration and intracranial place-conditioning studies. Behavioural Brain Research 101:129–52.Google Scholar
McCabe, S. E., Cranford, J. A., Boyd, C. J. & Teter, C. J. (2007b) Motives, diversion and routes of administration associated with nonmedical use of prescription opioids. Addictive Behavior 32:562–75.Google Scholar
McCabe, S. E., Knight, J. R., Teter, C. J. & Wechsler, H. (2005) Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: Prevalence and correlates from a national survey. Addiction 100:96–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCabe, S. E., West, B. T. & Wechsler, H. (2007a) Alcohol-use disorders and nonmedical use of prescription drugs among U.S. college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 68:543–7.Google Scholar
McGaugh, J. L. (2000) Memory – A century of consolidation. Science 287:248–51.Google Scholar
McLellan, A. T., Woody, G. E. & O'Brien, C. P. (1979) Development of psychiatric illness in drug abusers: Possible role of drug preference. New England Journal of Medicine 301(24):1310–14.Google Scholar
McMahon, L. R., Filip, M. & Cunningham, K. A. (2001) Differential regulation of the mesoaccumbens circuit by serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)2A and 5-HT2C receptors. Journal of Neuroscience 21:7781–87.Google Scholar
Mechoulam, R., Fride, E. & Di Marzo, V. (1998) Endocannabinoids. European Journal of Pharmacology 359:1–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mello, N. K. (1972) Behavioral studies of alcoholism. In: Biology of alcoholism, ed. Kissin, B. & Begleiter, H., pp. 210–19, Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Mengod, G., Cortes, R., Teresa Vilaro, M. & Hoyer, D. (2010) Distribution of 5-HT receptors in the central nervous system. In: Handbook of the behavioral neurobiology of serotonin, ed. Müller, C. P. & Jacobs, B. L., pp. 123–38. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Miller, C. S. (2001) Toxicant-induced loss of tolerance. Addiction 96(1):115–37.Google Scholar
Miller, G. (2000) Mental traits as fitness indicators. Expanding evolutionary psychology's adaptationism. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 907:62–74.Google Scholar
Miller, P. M., Smith, G. T. & Goldman, M. S. (1990) Emergence of alcohol expectancies in childhood: A possible critical period. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 51:343–49.Google Scholar
Miller-Tutzauer, C., Leonard, K. E. & Windle, M. (1991) Marriage and alcohol use: A longitudinal study of “maturing out.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 52(5):434–40.Google Scholar
Milner, B., Squire, L. R. & Kandel, E. R. (1998) Cognitive neuroscience and the study of memory. Neuron 20(3):445–68.Google Scholar
Mitchell, S. N. (1993) Role of the locus-coeruleus in the noradrenergic response to a systemic administration of nicotine. Neuropharmacology 32:937–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Molnar, D. S., Busseri, M. A., Perrier, C. P. & Sadava, S. W. (2009) A longitudinal examination of alcohol use and subjective well-being in an undergraduate sample. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 70:704–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mondaini, N., Cai, T., Gontero, P., Gavazzi, A., Lombardi, G., Boddi, V. & Bartoletti, R. (2009) Regular moderate intake of red wine is linked to a better women's sexual health. Journal of Sexual Medicine 6(10):2772–77.Google Scholar
Mooney, D. K. (1995) The relationship between sexual insecurity, the alcohol expectation for enhanced sexual experience, and consumption patterns. Addictive Behaviors 20(2):243–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Müller, C. P. & Carey, R. J. (2006) Intracellular 5-HT 2C-receptor dephosphorylation: A new target for treating drug addiction. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 27:455–58.Google Scholar
Müller, C. P., Carey, R. J., Huston, J. P. & De Souza Silva, M. A. (2007a) Serotonin and psychostimulant addiction: Focus on 5-HT1A-receptors. Progress in Neurobiology 81:133–78.Google Scholar
Müller, C. P., Carey, R. J., Wilkisz, M., Schwenzner, S., Jocham, G., Huston, J. P. & De Souza Silva, M. A. (2008) Acute anxiolytic effects of cocaine: The role of test latency and activity phase. Pharmacology Biochemistry & Behavior 89:218–26.Google Scholar
Müller, C. P., De Souza Silva, M. A. & Huston, J. P. (2007b) Double dissociating effects of sensory stimulation and cocaine on serotonin activity in the occipital and temporal cortices. Neuropharmacology 52:854–62.Google Scholar
Müller, C. P., Pum, M. E., Schumann, G. & Huston, J. P. (2010) The role of serotonin in drug addiction. In: The behavioral neurobiology of serotonin, ed. Müller, C. P. & Jacobs, B. L., pp. 507–46. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Müller, C. P., Thönnessen, H., Barros, M., Tomaz, C., Carey, R. J. & Huston, J. P. (2004) Hippocampus 5-HT(1A)-receptors attenuate cocaine-induced hyperlocomotion and the increase in hippocampal but not nucleus accumbens 5-HT. Hipppocampus 14:710–21.Google Scholar
NatCen/NFER and National Center for Social Research/National Foundation for Educational Research (2005) Smoking, drinking and drug use among young people in England 2005. London.Google Scholar
Nathanson, J. A., Hunnicutt, E. J., Kantham, L. & Scavone, C. (1993) Cocaine as a naturally occurring insecticide. Proceedings of the National Academy Sciences USA 90(20):9645–48.Google Scholar
Negrete, J. C. (1993) Effects of cannabis on schizophrenia. In: Cannabis: Pathophysiology, epidemiology, detection, ed. Nahas, G. G. & Latour, C., pp. 105–12. CRC Press.Google Scholar
Nesse, R. M. (2002) Evolution and addiction. Addiction 97:470–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nesse, R. M. & Berridge, K. C. (1997) Psychoactive drug use in evolutionary perspective. Science 278:63–66.Google Scholar
Nestler, E. J. & Aghajanian, G. K. (1997) Molecular and cellular basis of addiction. Science 278:58–63.Google Scholar
Newlin, D. B. (2002) The self-perceived survival ability and reproductive fitness (SPFit) theory of substance use disorders. Addiction 97:427–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Niaura, R., Goldstein, M. & Abrams, D. (1991) A bioinformational systems perspective on tobacco dependence. British Journal of Addiction 86(5):593–97.Google Scholar
Nichols, D. E. (2004) Hallucinogens. Pharmacological Therapy 101(2):131–81.Google Scholar
Nilsen, P., Holmqvist, M., Hultgren, E., Bendtsen, P. & Cedergren, M. (2008) Alcohol use before and during pregnancy and factors influencing change among Swedish women. Acta Obstetrics and Gynecology of Scandinavia 87(7):768–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
NSDUH (2007) National Survey of Drug Use and Health. http://oas.samhsa.gov/researchers.cfm.Google Scholar
Nutt, D., King, L. A., Saulsbury, W. & Blakemore, C. (2007) Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse. Lancet 369:1047–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Brien, C. P., Childress, A. R., Ehrman, R. & Robbins, S. J. (1998) Conditioning factors in drug abuse: Can they explain compulsion? Journal of Psychopharmacology 12(1):15–22.Google Scholar
O'Malley, P. M. & Johnston, L. D. (2002) Epidemiology of alcohol and other drug use among American college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol Supplement l:23–39.Google Scholar
O'Malley, P. M., Johnston, L. D. & Bachman, J. G. (1985) Cocaine use among American adolescents and young adults. NIDA Research Monographs 61:50–75.Google Scholar
Olds, J. & Milner, P. (1954) Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 47:419–27.Google Scholar
Olmstead, M. C. (2006) Animal models of drug addiction: Where do we go from here? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (Colchester.) 59(4):625–53.Google Scholar
Orford, J. (2001a) Addiction as excessive appetite. Addiction 96(1):15–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orford, J. (2008) Asking the right questions in the right way: The need for a shift in research on psychological treatments for addiction. Addiction 103(6):875–85.Google Scholar
Overton, D. A. (1968) Visual cues and shock sensitivity in the control of T-maze choice by drug conditions. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 66:216–19.Google Scholar
Page, J. E., Balza, F., Nishida, T. & Towers, G. H. (1992) Biologically active diterpenes from Aspilia mossambicensis, a chimpanzee medicinal plant. Phytochemistry 31(10):3437–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Panksepp, J. B. & Lahvis, G. P. (2007) Social reward among juvenile mice. Genes Brain and Behavior 6(7):661–71.Google Scholar
Panksepp, J., Knutson, B. & Burgdorf, J. (2002) The role of brain emotional systems in addictions: A neuro-evolutionary perspective and new “self-report” animal model. Addiction 97(4):459–69.Google Scholar
Parsons, O. A. (1998) Neurocognitive deficits in alcoholics and social drinkers: A continuum? Alcohol Clinical and Experimental Research 22(4):954–61.Google Scholar
Pascual-Leone, A., Dhuna, A. & Anderson, D. C. (1991) Long-term neurological complications of chronic, habitual cocaine abuse. Neurotoxicology 12(3):393–400.Google Scholar
Patrick, M. E. & Maggs, J. L. (2008) Short-term changes in plans to drink and importance of positive and negative alcohol consequences. Journal of Adolescence 31:307–21.Google Scholar
Patrick, M. E. & Maggs, J. L. (2009) Does drinking lead to sex? Daily alcohol-sex behaviors and expectancies among college students. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 23(3):472–81.Google Scholar
Peele, S. & Brodsky, A. (2000) Exploring psychological benefits associated with moderate alcohol use: A necessary corrective to assessments of drinking outcomes? Drug and Alcohol Dependence 60:221–47.Google Scholar
Perkins, H. W. (1999) Stress-motivated drinking in collegiate and postcollegiate young adulthood: Life course and gender patterns. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 60:219–27.Google Scholar
Perkins, K. A. (1992) Effects of tobacco smoking on caloric intake. British Journal of Addiction 87:193–205.Google Scholar
Perry, E. K. & Perry, R. H. (1995) Acetylcholine and hallucinations: Disease-related compared to drug-induced alterations in human consciousness. Brain and Cognition 28:240–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porkka-Heiskanen, T., Strecker, R. E., Thakkar, M., Bjorkum, A. A., Greene, R. W. & McCarley, R. W. (1997) Adenosine: A mediator of the sleep-inducing effects of prolonged wakefulness. Science 276:1265–68.Google Scholar
Porrino, L. J., Lyons, D., Smith, H. R., Daunais, J. B. & Nader, M. A. (2004) Cocaine self-administration produces a progressive involvement of limbic, association, and sensorimotor striatal domains. Journal of Neuroscience 24(14):3554–62.Google Scholar
Porter, A. C. & Felder, C. C. (2001) The endocannabinoid nervous system: Unique opportunities for therapeutic intervention. Pharmacology and Therapeutics 90:45–60.Google Scholar
Post, R. M., Kotin, J. & Goodwin, F. K. (1974) The effects of cocaine on depressed patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 131:511–17.Google Scholar
Potvin, S., Stip, E. & Roy, J. Y. (2003) Schizophrenia and addiction: An evaluation of the self-medication hypothesis. Encephale 29:193–203.Google Scholar
Pum, M., Carey, R. J., Huston, J. P. & Müller, C. P. (2007) Dissociating effects of cocaine and d-amphetamine on dopamine and serotonin in the perirhinal, entorhinal, and prefrontal cortex of freely moving rats. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 193:375–90.Google Scholar
Pum, M. E., Huston, J. P., De Souza Silva, M. A. & Müller, C. P. (2008) Visual sensory-motor gating by serotonin activation in the medial prefrontal and occipital, but not in the rhinal, cortices in rats. Neuroscience 153:361–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quadros, I. M., Takahashi, A. & Miczek, K. A. (2010) Serotonin and aggression. In: Handbook of the behavioral neurobiology of serotonin, ed. Müller, C. P. & Jacobs, B. L., pp. 687–714. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Quednow, B. B., Jessen, F., Kuhn, K. U., Maier, W., Daum, I. & Wagner, M. (2006) Memory deficits in abstinent MDMA (ecstasy) users: Neuropsychological evidence of frontal dysfunction. Journal of Psychopharmacology 20:373–84.Google Scholar
Quednow, B. B., Kuhn, K. U., Hoppe, C., Westheide, J., Maier, W., Daum, I. & Wagner, M. (2007) Elevated impulsivity and impaired decision-making cognition in heavy users of MDMA (“Ecstasy”). Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 189:517–530.Google Scholar
Quednow, B. B., Kuhn, K. U., Mossner, R., Schwab, S. G., Schuhmacher, A., Maier, W. & Wagner, M. (2008) Sensorimotor gating of schizophrenia patients is influenced by 5-HT2A receptor polymorphisms. Biological Psychiatry 64:434–37.Google Scholar
Quednow, B. B., Schmechtig, A., Ettinger, U., Petrovsky, N., Collier, D. A., Vollenweider, F. X., Wagner, M. & Kumari, V. (2009) Sensorimotor gating depends on polymorphisms of the serotonin-2A receptor and catechol-O-methyltransferase, but not on neuregulin-1 Arg38Gln genotype: A replication study. Biological Psychiatry 66:614–20.Google Scholar
Ray, R., Schnoll, R. A. & Lerman, C. (2009) Nicotine dependence: Biology, behaviour, and treatment. Annual Review of Medicine 60:247–60.Google Scholar
Redish, A. D., Jensen, S. & Johnson, A. (2008) A unified framework for addiction: Vulnerabilities in the decision process. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 31(4):415–37.Google Scholar
Resnick, R. B., Kestenbaum, R. S. & Schwartz, L. K. (1977) Acute systemic effects of cocaine in man: A controlled study by intranasal and intravenous routes. Science 195:696–98.Google Scholar
Rezvani, A. H. & Levin, E. D. (2001) Cognitive effects of nicotine. Biological Psychiatry 49:258–67.Google Scholar
Rich, J. A. & Singer, D. E. (1991) Cocaine-related symptoms in patients presenting to an urban emergency department. Annals of Emergency Medicine 20:616–21.Google Scholar
Richardson, N. R. & Roberts, D. C. S. (1996) Progressive ratio schedules in drug self-administration studies in rats: A method to evaluate reinforcing efficacy. Journal of Neuroscience Methods 66(1):1–11.Google Scholar
Risner, M. E. & Jones, B. E. (1980) Intravenous self-administration of cocaine and norcocaine by dogs. Psychopharmacology 71(1):83–89.Google Scholar
Ritz, M. C., Cone, E. J. & Kuhar, M. J. (1990) Cocaine inhibition of ligand binding at dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin transporters: A structure-activity study. Life Sciences 46:635–45.Google Scholar
Ritz, M. C. & Kuhar, M. J. (1989) Relationship between self-administration of amphetamine and monoamine receptors in brain – comparison with cocaine. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 248:1010–17.Google Scholar
Robbins, T. W. & Everitt, B. J. (1996) Neurobehavioural mechanisms of reward and motivation. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 6:228–36.Google Scholar
Robbins, T. W. & Everitt, B. J. (1999) Drug addiction: Bad habits add up. Nature 398(6728):567–70.Google Scholar
Robbins, T. W., Ersche, K. D. & Everitt, B. J. (2008) Drug addiction and the memory systems of the brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1141:1–21.Google Scholar
Robinson, T. E. & Berridge, K. C. (1993) The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Research Reviews 18:247–91.Google Scholar
Robinson, T. E. & Berridge, K. C. (2003) Addiction. Annual Reviews in Psychology 54:25–53.Google Scholar
Robles, M., Aregullin, M., West, J. & Rodriguez, E. (1995) Recent studies on the zoopharmacognosy, pharmacology and neurotoxicology of sesquiterpene lactones. Planta Medica 61:199–203.Google Scholar
Rodgers, B., Korten, A. E., Jorm, A. F., Christensen, H., Henderson, S. & Jacomb, P. A. (2000) Risk factors for depression and anxiety in abstainers, moderate drinkers and heavy drinkers. Addiction 95:1833–45.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, E., Aregullin, M., Nishida, T., Uehara, S., Wrangham, R., Abramowski, Z., Finlayson, A. & Towers, G. H. (1985) Thiarubrine A, a bioactive constituent of Aspilia (Asteraceae) consumed by wild chimpanzees. Experientia 41(3):419–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodriguez, E. & Wrangham, R. (1993) Zoopharmacognosy: The use of medicinal plants by animals. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry 27:89–105.Google Scholar
Room, R. (2000) The more drinking, the more fun; but is there a calculus of fun, and should it drive policy? Drug and Alcohol Dependence 60:249–50.Google Scholar
Ross, H. E. & Young, L. J. (2009) Oxytocin and the neural mechanisms regulating social cognition and affiliative behavior. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 30(4):534–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rozin, P. & Kalat, J. W. (1971) Specific hungers and poison avoidance as adaptive specializations of learning. Clinical Psychology 78(6):459–86.Google Scholar
Salamone, J.D. (1996) The behavioral neurochemistry of motivation: Methodological and conceptual issues in studies of the dynamic activity of nucleus accumbens dopamine. Journal of Neuroscience Methods 64:137–49.Google Scholar
Samanin, R. & Garattini, S. (1993) Neurochemical mechanism of action of anorectic drugs. Pharmacology and Toxicology 73:63–68.Google Scholar
SAMHSA (2005) National survey on drug use and health, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville (http://oas.samhsa.gov/nhsda.htm#NHSDAinfo).Google Scholar
Sanchis-Segura, C. & Spanagel, R. (2006) Behavioural assessment of drug reinforcement and addictive features in rodents: An overview. Addiction Biology 11(1):2–38.Google Scholar
Sareen, J., McWilliams, L., Cox, B. & Stein, M. B. (2004) Does a U-shaped relationship exist between alcohol use and DSM-III-R mood and anxiety disorders? Journal of Affective Disorders 82:113–18.Google Scholar
Sarter, M. & Bruno, J. P. (1997) Cognitive functions of cortical acetylcholine: Toward a unifying hypothesis. Brain Research Reviews 23:28–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarter, M., Hasselmo, M. E., Bruno, J. P. & Givens, B. (2005) Unraveling the attentional functions of cortical cholinergic inputs: Interactions between signal-driven and cognitive modulation of signal detection. Brain Research Reviews 48:98–111.Google Scholar
Schultz, W. (2000) Multiple reward signals in the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 1:199–207.Google Scholar
Schumann, G. (2007) Okey Lecture 2006: Identifying the neurobiological mechanisms of addictive behaviour. Addiction 102:1689–95.Google Scholar
Schumann, G., Johann, M., Frank, J., Preuss, U., Dahmen, N., Laucht, M., Rietschel, M., Rujescu, D., Lourdusamy, A., Clarke, T. K., Krause, K., Dyer, A., Depner, M., Wellek, S., Treutlein, J., Szegedi, A., Giegling, I., Cichon, S., Blomeyer, D., Heinz, A., Heath, S., Lathrop, M., Wodarz, N., Soyka, M., Spanagel, R. & Mann, K. (2008) Systematic analysis of glutamatergic neurotransmission genes in alcohol dependence and adolescent risky drinking behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry 65:826–38.Google Scholar
Schumann, G., Rujescu, D., Kissling, C., Soyka, M., Dahmen, N., Preuss, U. W., Wieman, S., Depner, M., Wellek, S., Lascorz, J., Bondy, B., Giegling, I., Anghelescu, I., Cowen, M. S., Poustka, A., Spanagel, R., Mann, K., Henn, F. A. & Szegedi, A. (2003) Analysis of genetic variations of protein tyrosine kinase fyn and their association with alcohol dependence in two independent cohorts. Biological Psychiatry 54:1422–26.Google Scholar
Schwarting, R. K., Thiel, C. M., Müller, C. P. & Huston, J. P. (1998) Relationship between anxiety and serotonin in the ventral striatum. NeuroReport 9:1025–29.Google Scholar
Seefelder, M. (1996) Opium. Eine Kulturgeschichte, 3 ed. Nikol.Google Scholar
Segal, B. (1985) Confirmatory analyses of reasons for experiencing psychoactive drugs during adolescence. International Journal of Addiction 20:1649–62.Google Scholar
Seiden, L. S. & Sabol, K. E. (1996) Methamphetamine and methylenedioxymethamphetamine neurotoxicity: Possible mechanisms of cell destruction. NIDA Research Monographs 163:251–76.Google Scholar
Seiden, L. S., Sabol, K. E. & Ricaurte, G. A. (1993) Amphetamine: effects on catecholamine systems and behavior. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 33:639–77.Google Scholar
Sen, B. (2002) Does alcohol-use increase the risk of sexual intercourse among adolescents? Evidence from the NLSY97. Journal of Health Economics 21(6):1085–93.Google Scholar
Shaham, Y., Shalev, U., Lu, L., de Wit, H. & Stewart, J. (2003) The reinstatement model of drug relapse: History, methodology and major findings. Psychopharmacology 168(1–2):3–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheldon, P. W. & Aghajanian, G. K. (1990) Serotonin (5-HT) induces IPSPs in pyramidal layer cells of rat piriform cortex – Evidence for the involvement of a 5-HT2-activated interneuron. Brain Research 506:62–69.Google Scholar
Sher, K. J., Grekin, E. R. & Williams, N. A. (2005) The development of alcohol use disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 1:493–523.Google Scholar
Siegel, R. K. (1978) Cocaine hallucinations. American Journal of Psychiatry 135:309–14.Google Scholar
Siegel, S. (1988) Drug anticipation and the treatment of dependence. NIDA Research Monograph 84:1–24.Google Scholar
Simons, J., Correia, C. J. & Carey, K. B. (2000) A comparison of motives for marihuana and alcohol use among experienced users. Addictive Behavior 25:153–60.Google Scholar
Singer, M. S., Mace, K. C. & Bernays, E. A. (2009) Self-medication as adaptive plasticity: Increased ingestion of plant toxins by parasitized caterpillars. PLoS.One. 4(3):e4796.Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1938) The behavior of organisms. Appleton.Google Scholar
Skog, O. J. (2000) Addicts' choice. Addiction 95(9):1309–14.Google Scholar
Skogen, J. C., Harvey, S. B., Henderson, M., Stordal, E. & Mykletun, A. (2009) Anxiety and depression among abstainers and low-level alcohol consumers. The Nord-Trondelag Health Study. Addiction 104:1519–29.Google Scholar
Solowij, N. (1998) Cannabis and cognitive functioning. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Spanagel, R. (2009) Alcoholism: A systems approach from molecular physiology to addictive behavior. Physiological Reviews 89:649–705.Google Scholar
Spanagel, R., Pendyala, G., Abarca, C., Zghoul, T., Sanchis-Segura, C., Magnone, M. C., Lascorz, J., Depner, M., Holzberg, D., Soyka, M., Schreiber, S., Matsuda, F., Lathrop, M., Schumann, G. & Albrecht, U. (2005) The clock gene Per2 influences the glutamatergic system and modulates alcohol consumption. Nature Medicine 11:35–42.Google Scholar
Spealman, R. D. & Goldberg, S. R. (1978) Drug self-administration by laboratory animals: Control by schedules of reinforcement. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 18:313–39.Google Scholar
Spear, L. P. (2000) The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 24:417–63.Google Scholar
Sprouse, J. S., Bradberry, C. W., Roth, R. H. & Aghajanian, G. K. (1990) 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced release of serotonin and inhibition of dorsal raphe cell firing: potentiation by L-tryptophan. European Journal of Pharmacology 178:313–20.Google Scholar
Squire, L. R., Knowlton, B. & Musen, G. (1993) The structure and organization of memory. Annual Review of Psychology 44:453–95.Google Scholar
Stacey, D., Clarke, T. K. & Schumann, G. (2009) The genetics of alcoholism. Current Psychiatry Reports 11(5):364–69.Google Scholar
Steele, C. M. & Josephs, R. A. (1990) Alcohol myopia. Its prized and dangerous effects. The American Psychologist 45(8):921–33.Google Scholar
Steriade, M., Datta, S., Pare, D., Oakson, G. & Curro Dossi, R. C. (1990) Neuronal activities in brain-stem cholinergic nuclei related to tonic activation processes in thalamocortical systems. Journal of Neuroscience 10:2541–59.Google Scholar
Stillman, R., Jones, R. T., Moore, D., Walker, J. & Welm, S. (1993) Improved performance 4 hours after cocaine. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 110:415–20.Google Scholar
Stolerman, I. (1992) Drugs of abuse: Behavioural principles, methods and terms. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 13:170–76.Google Scholar
Streatfeild, D. (2001) Cocaine. An unauthorized biography. St Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Sullivan, R. J. & Hagen, E. H. (2002) Psychotropic substance-seeking: Evolutionary pathology or adaptation? Addiction 97(4):389–400.Google Scholar
Sullivan, R. J., Hagen, E. H. & Hammerstein, P. (2008) Revealing the paradox of drug reward in human evolution. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 275:1231–41.Google Scholar
Sussman, S., Pentz, M. A., Spruijt-Metz, D. & Miller, T. (2006) Misuse of “study drugs”: prevalence, consequences, and implications for policy. Substance Abuse Treatment and Prevention Policy 1:15.Google Scholar
Tatarkiewicz, W. (1976) Analysis of happiness. Kluwer Academic Publishers.Google Scholar
Taylor, B., Rehm, J. & Gmel, G. (2005) Moderate alcohol consumption and the gastrointestinal tract. Digestive Disorders 23:170–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, J., Fulop, N. & Green, J. (1999) Drink, illicit drugs and unsafe sex in women. Addiction 94(8):1209–18.Google Scholar
Teter, C. J., Falone, A. E., Cranford, J. A., Boyd, C. J. & McCabe, S. E. (2010) Nonmedical use of prescription stimulants and depressed mood among college students: Frequency and routes of administration. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 38(3):292–98.Google Scholar
Thiel, C. M., Müller, C. P., Huston, J. P. & Schwarting, R. K. (1999) High versus low reactivity to a novel environment: Behavioural, pharmacological and neurochemical assessments. Neuroscience 93(1):243–51.Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1963) On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 20:410–33.Google Scholar
Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (1992) The psychological foundation of culture. In: The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture, ed. Barkow, J., Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J., pp. 19–39. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tupala, E. & Tiihonen, J. (2004) Dopamine and alcoholism: Neurobiological basis of ethanol abuse. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 28:1221–47.Google Scholar
Tzschentke, T. M. (2007) Measuring reward with the conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm: Update of the last decade. Addiction Biology 12(3–4):227–462.Google Scholar
Uekermann, J. & Daum, I. (2008) Social cognition in alcoholism: A link to prefrontal cortex dysfunction? Addiction 103(5):726–35.Google Scholar
Uher, R. (2009) The role of genetic variation in the causation of mental illness: An evolution-informed framework. Molecular Psychiatry 14(12):1072–82.Google Scholar
Usher, M., Cohen, J. D., Servan-Schreiber, D., Rajkowski, J. & Aston-Jones, G. (1999) The role of locus coeruleus in the regulation of cognitive performance. Science 283:549–54.Google Scholar
Vanderschuren, L. J. & Kalivas, P. W. (2000) Alterations in dopaminergic and glutamatergic transmission in the induction and expression of behavioral sensitization: A critical review of preclinical studies. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 151(2–3):99–120.Google Scholar
Villalba, J. J., Provenza, F. D., Hall, J. O. & Lisonbee, L. D. (2010) Selection of tannins by sheep in response to gastrointestinal nematode infection. Journal of Animal Science 88(6):2189–98.Google Scholar
Volkow, N. D., Hitzemann, R., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., Wolf, A. P., Dewey, S. L. & Handlesman, L. (1992) Long-term frontal brain metabolic changes in cocaine abusers. Synapse 11(3):184–90.Google Scholar
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Fischman, M. W., Foltin, R. W., Fowler, J. S., Abumrad, N. N., Vitkun, S., Logan, J., Gatley, S. J., Pappas, N., Hitzemann, R. & Shea, C. E. (1997) Relationship between subjective effects of cocaine and dopamine transporter occupancy. Nature 386:827–30.Google Scholar
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Ma, Y. M., Fowler, J. S., Wong, C., Jayne, M., Telang, F. & Swanson, J. M. (2006) Effects of expectation on the brain metabolic responses to methylphenidate and to its placebo in non-drug abusing subjects. Neuroimage 32(4):1782–92.Google Scholar
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Ma, Y. M., Fowler, J. S., Zhu, W., Maynard, L., Telang, F., Vaska, P., Ding, Y. S., Wong, C. & Swanson, J. M. (2003) Expectation enhances the regional brain metabolic and the reinforcing effects of stimulants in cocaine abusers. The Journal of Neuroscience 23(36):11461–68.Google Scholar
Wack, J. T. & Rodin, J. (1982) Smoking and its effects on body weight and the systems of caloric regulation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 35:366–80.Google Scholar
Wagner, F. A. & Anthony, J. C. (2002) From first drug use to drug dependence; developmental periods of risk for dependence upon marihuana, cocaine, and alcohol. Neuropsychopharmacology 26:479–88.Google Scholar
Wakefield, J. C. (1999) Evolutionary versus prototype analyses of the concept of disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 108(3):374–99.Google Scholar
Waldorf, D., Reinarman, C. & Murphy, S. (1991) Cocaine changes: The experience of using and quitting, Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Ward, R. J., Lallemand, F. & de, W. P. (2009) Biochemical and neurotransmitter changes implicated in alcohol-induced brain damage in chronic or “binge drinking” alcohol abuse. Alcohol and Alcoholism 44(2):128–35.Google Scholar
Waskow, I. E., Olsson, J. E., Salzman, C. & Katz, M. M. (1970) Psychological effects of tetrahydrocannabinol. Archives of General Psychiatry 22:97–107.Google Scholar
Weil, A. T. (1998) The natural mind. Houghton Mifflin Co.Google Scholar
Weir, E. (2000) Raves: A review of the culture, the drugs and the prevention of harm. Canadian Medical Association Journal 162:1843–48.Google Scholar
Weiss, R. D., Mirin, S. M., Michael, J. L. & Sollogub, A. C. (1986) Psychopathology in chronic cocaine abusers. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 12:17–29.Google Scholar
Wells, B. E., Kelly, B. C., Golub, S. A., Grov, C. & Parsons, J. T. (2010) Patterns of alcohol consumption and sexual behavior among young adults in nightclubs. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 36(1):39–45.Google Scholar
West, R. (2006) Theory of addiction. Blackwell.Google Scholar
White, B. P., Becker-Blease, K. A. & Grace-Bishop, K. (2006) Stimulant medication use, misuse, and abuse in an undergraduate and graduate student sample. Journal of the American College of Health 54:261–68.Google Scholar
White, N. M. (1989) Reward or reinforcement: What's the difference? Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 13(2–3):181–86.Google Scholar
White, N. M. (1996) Addictive drugs as reinforcers: Multiple partial actions on memory systems. Addiction 91:921–49.Google Scholar
Wiens, F., Zitzmann, A., Lachance, M. A., Yegles, M., Pragst, F., Wurst, F. M., von Holst, D., Guan, S. L. & Spanagel, R. (2008) Chronic intake of fermented floral nectar by wild treeshrews. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A 105(30):10426–31.Google Scholar
Wikler, A. (1973) Dynamics of drug dependence. Implications of a conditioning theory for research and treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry 28(5):611–16.Google Scholar
Williams, G. C. (1957) Pleiotropy, natural selection, and the evolution of senescence. Evolution 11:398–411.Google Scholar
Williams, M. J. & Adinoff, B. (2007) The role of acetylcholine in cocaine addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology 33:1779–97.Google Scholar
Williamson, E. M. & Evans, F. J. (2000) Cannabinoids in clinical practice. Drugs 60:1303–14.Google Scholar
Wilsnack, S. C. (1974) The effects of social drinking on women's fantasy. Journal of Personality 42:43–61.Google Scholar
Wise, R. A. (1980) The dopamine synapse and the notion of “pleasure centers” in the brain. Trends in Neurosciences 91–95.Google Scholar
Wise, R. A. (1994) A brief history of the anhedonia hypothesis. In: Appetite: Neural and behavioural base, ed. Legg, C. R. & Both, D. A., pp. 234–63, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wise, R. A. (2002) Brain reward circuitry: Insights from unsensed incentives. Neuron 36(2):229–40.Google Scholar
Witkin, J. M., Savtchenko, N., Mashkovsky, M., Beekman, M., Munzar, P., Gasior, M., Goldberg, S. R., Ungard, J. T., Kim, J., Shippenberg, T. & Chefer, V. (1999) Behavioral, toxic, and neurochemical effects of sydnocarb, a novel psychomotor stimulant: Comparisons with methamphetamine. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 288(3):1298–310.Google Scholar
Woicik, P. A., Stewart, S. H., Pihl, R. O. & Conrod, P. J. (2009) The Substance Use Risk Profile Scale: A scale measuring traits linked to reinforcement-specific substance use profiles. Addictive Behavior 34:1042–55.Google Scholar
Wolff, K. & Winstock, A. R. (2006) Ketamine: From medicine to misuse. CNS Drugs 20:199–218.Google Scholar
Wonnacott, S. (1997) Presynaptic nicotinic ACh receptors. Trends in Neurosciences 20:92–98.Google Scholar
Wood, R. I. (2004) Reinforcing aspects of androgens. Physiology Behavior 83(2):279–89.Google Scholar
Wood, R. I. (2008) Anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence? Insights from animals and humans. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 29:490–506.Google Scholar
Wrangham, R. & Nishida, T. (1983) Aspilla spp. Leaves: A puzzle in the feeding behavior of wild chimpanzees. Primates 24(2):276–82.Google Scholar
Wyatt, R. J., Karoum, F., Suddath, R. & Fawcett, R. (1988) Persistently decreased brain dopamine levels and cocaine. Journal of the American Medical Association 259:2996.Google Scholar
Yokel, R. A. & Pickens, R. (1973) Self-administration of optical isomers of amphetamine and methylamphetamine by rats. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 187(1):27–33.Google Scholar
Young, A. M., Joseph, M. H. & Gray, J. A. (1993) Latent inhibition of conditioned dopamine release in rat nucleus accumbens. Neuroscience 54:5–9.Google Scholar
Zacny, J. P. & Lichtor, S. A. (2008) Nonmedical use of prescription opioids: Motive and ubiquity issues. Journal of Pain 9:473–86.Google Scholar
Zinberg, N. E. (1984) Drug, set, and setting: The basis for controlled intoxicant use. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Zinberg, N. E., Harding, W. M., Stelmack, S. M. & Marblestone, R. A. (1978) Patterns of heroin use. Annals of the New York of Academy Sciences 311:10–24.Google Scholar
Zinberg, N. E. & Jacobson, R. C. (1976) The natural history of “chipping.” The American Journal of Psychiatry 133(1):37–40.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, M. (1990) The psychophysiology of sensation seeking. Journal of Personality 58:313–45.Google Scholar
Zvolensky, M. J., Vujanovic, A. A., Bernstein, A., Bonn-Miller, M. O., Marshall, E. C. & Leyro, T. M. (2007) Marijuana use motives: A confirmatory test and evaluation among young adult marijuana users. Addictive Behavior 32:3122–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed