Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T22:21:58.026Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A conceptual framework for the neurobiological study of resilience

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 August 2014

Raffael Kalisch ,
Marianne B. Müller  and
Oliver Tüscher
Raffael Kalisch
Affiliation:
Neuroimaging Center Mainz (NIC), Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center Mainz, and Deutsches Resilienz-Zentrum Mainz (DRZ), Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55131 Mainz, Germanyrkalisch@uni-mainz.dewww.ftn.nic.uni-mainz.de/en/
Marianne B. Müller
Affiliation:
Research Group Molecular Stress Physiology, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804 Munich, Germanyand Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center Mainz, and Deutsches Resilienz-Zentrum Mainz (DRZ), Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55131 Mainz, Germanymuellerm@mpipsykl.mpg.de
Oliver Tüscher
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center Mainz, and Deutsches Resilienz-Zentrum Mainz (DRZ), Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55131 Mainz, Germanytuescher@uni-mainz.de
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The well-replicated observation that many people maintain mental health despite exposure to severe psychological or physical adversity has ignited interest in the mechanisms that protect against stress-related mental illness. Focusing on resilience rather than pathophysiology in many ways represents a paradigm shift in clinical-psychological and psychiatric research that has great potential for the development of new prevention and treatment strategies. More recently, research into resilience also arrived in the neurobiological community, posing nontrivial questions about ecological validity and translatability. Drawing on concepts and findings from transdiagnostic psychiatry, emotion research, and behavioral and cognitive neuroscience, we propose a unified theoretical framework for the neuroscientific study of general resilience mechanisms. The framework is applicable to both animal and human research and supports the design and interpretation of translational studies. The theory emphasizes the causal role of stimulus appraisal (evaluation) processes in the generation of emotional responses, including responses to potential stressors. On this basis, it posits that a positive (non-negative) appraisal style is the key mechanism that protects against the detrimental effects of stress and mediates the effects of other known resilience factors. Appraisal style is shaped by three classes of cognitive processes – positive situation classification, reappraisal, and interference inhibition – that can be investigated at the neural level. Prospects for the future development of resilience research are discussed.

Keywords

adaptationallostasisappraisalaversioncopingemotionemotion regulationinterferenceinhibitionmental healthmotivationPASTORpreventionreappraisalrecoveryresiliencestressstressortrauma
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 38 , 2015 , e92
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abraham, A. D., Neve, K. A. & Lattal, K. M. (2013) Dopamine and extinction: A convergence of theory with fear and reward circuitry. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 108:65–77.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M. & Rescorla, L. A. (2003) Manual for the ASEBA adult forms and profiles. University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families .Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.) . American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
American Psychological Association (2010) The road to resilience. Available at: http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/road-resilience.aspx.Google Scholar
Arnold, M. B. (1969) Human emotion and action. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Aron, A. R. (2011) From reactive to proactive and selective control: Developing a richer model for stopping inappropriate responses. Biological Psychiatry 69:e55–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A. (1977) Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review 84:191–215.Google Scholar
Bari, A. & Robbins, T. W. (2013) Inhibition and impulsivity: Behavioral and neural basis of response control. Progress in Neurobiology 108:44–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, A. T. & Clark, D. A. (1988) Anxiety and depression: An information processing perspective. Anxiety Research 1:23–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, A. T., Emery, G. & Greenberg, R. L. (1985) Anxiety disorders and phobias. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Benight, C. C. & Cieslak, R. (2011) Cognitive factors and resilience: How self-efficacy contributes to coping with adversities. In: Resilience and mental health: Challenges across the lifespan, ed . Southwick, S. M., Litz, B. T., Charney, D. & Friedman, M. J., pp . 45–55. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonanno, G. A. & Mancini, A. D. (2011) Toward a lifespan approach to resilience and potential trauma. In: Resilience and mental health: Challenges across the lifespan, ed . Southwick, S. M., Litz, B. T., Charney, D. & Friedman, M. J., pp . 120–34. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bonanno, G. A., Westphal, M. & Mancini, A. D. (2011) Resilience to loss and potential trauma. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 7:511–35. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bouton, M. E. (1984) Differential control by context in the inflation and reinstatement paradigms. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 10:56–74.Google Scholar
Bouton, M. E. (2004) Context and behavioral processes in extinction. Learning and Memory 11(5):485–94. doi: 10.1101/lm.78804.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Britton, J. C., Lissek, S., Grillon, C., Norcross, M. A. & Pine, D. S. (2011) Development of anxiety: The role of threat appraisal and fear learning. Depression and Anxiety 28:5–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buhle, J. T., Silvers, J. A., Wager, T. D., Lopez, R., Onyemekwu, C., Kober, H., Weber, J. & Ochsner, K. N. (2013) Cognitive reappraisal of emotion: A meta-analysis of human neuroimaging studies. Cerebral Cortex 24:2981–90.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Hariri, A. R., Holmes, A., Uher, R. & Moffitt, T. E. (2010) Genetic sensitivity to the environment: The case of the serotonin transporter gene and its implications for studying complex diseases and traits. American Journal of Psychiatry 167:509–27.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Thornton, A., Freedman, D., Amell, J. W., Harrington, H., Smeijers, J. & Silva, P. A. (1996) The life history calendar: A research and clinical assessment method for collecting retrospective event-history data. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 6:101–14.3.3.CO;2-E>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaudhury, D., Walsh, J. J., Friedman, A. K., Juarez, B., Ku, S. M., Koo, J. W., Ferguson, D., Tsai, H. C., Pomeranz, L., Christoffel, D. J., Nectow, A. R., Ekstrand, M., Domingos, A., Mazei-Robison, M. S., Mouzon, E., Lobo, M. K., Neve, R. L., Friedman, J. M., Russo, S. J., Deisseroth, K., Nestler, E. J. & Han, M. H. (2013) Rapid regulation of depression-related behaviours by control of midbrain dopamine neurons. Nature 493:532–36. doi: 10.1038/nature11713 Google Scholar
Clark, D. A. & Beck, A. T. (2010) Cognitive theory and therapy of anxiety and depression: Convergence with neurobiological findings. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 14:418–24.Google Scholar
Corbetta, M. & Shulman, G. L. (2002) Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3:201–15.Google Scholar
Craddock, N. & Owen, M. J. (2010) The Kraepelinian dichotomy – going, going … but still not gone. British Journal of Psychiatry 196:92–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craske, M. G., Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R., Waters, A. M., Vrshek-Schallhorn, S., Epstein, A., Naliboff, B. & Ornitz, E. (2012) Elevated responding to safe conditions as a specific risk factor for anxiety versus depressive disorders: Evidence from a longitudinal investigation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 121:315–24.Google Scholar
Cuthbert, B. N. & Insel, T. R. (2013) Toward the future of psychiatric diagnosis: The seven pillars of RDoC. BMC Medicine 11:126.Google Scholar
Daniel, R. M., Cousens, S. N., De Stavola, B. L., Kenward, M. G. & Sterne, J. A. C. (2013) Methods for dealing with time-dependent confounding. Statistics in Medicine 32:1584–618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dayan, P. & Abbott, L. F. (2001) Classical conditioning and reinforcement learning. In: Theoretical Neuroscience, pp . 331–39. MIT Press.Google Scholar
De Kloet, E. R. (2008) About stress hormones and resilience to psychopathology. Journal of Neuroendocrinology 20:885–92.Google Scholar
Dickinson, A. & Pearce, J. M. (1977) Inhibitory interactions between appetitive and aversive stimuli. Psychological Bulletin 84:690–711.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Etkin, A., Egner, T. & Kalisch, R. (2011) Emotional processing in anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 15:85–93.Google Scholar
Etkin, A. & Wager, T. (2007) Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: A meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. American Journal of Psychiatry 164(10):1476–88. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030504.Google Scholar
Feder, A., Charney, D. & Abe, K. (2011) Neurobiology of resilience. In: Resilience and mental health: Challenges across the lifespan, ed . Southwick, S. M., Litz, B. T., Charney, D. & Friedman, M. J., pp . 1–29. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Foa, E. B., Franklin, M. E., Perry, K. J. & Herbert, J. D. (1996) Cognitive biases in generalized social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 105:433–39.Google Scholar
Franklin, T. B., Saab, B. J. & Mansuy, I. M. (2012) Neural mechanisms of stress resilience and vulnerability. Neuron 75(5):747–61. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.08.016.Google Scholar
Friedman, A. K., Walsh, J. J., Juarez, B., Ku, S. M., Chaudhury, D., Wang, J., Li, X., Dietz, D. M., Pan, N., Vialou, V. F., Neve, R. L., Yue, Z. & Han, M. H. (2014) Enhancing depression mechanisms in midbrain dopamine neurons achieves homeostatic resilience. Science 344:313–19. doi: 10.1126/science.1249240 Google Scholar
Frijda, N. H. (1993) The place of appraisal in emotion. Cognition and Emotion 7:357–87.Google Scholar
Galea, S. & Maxwell, A. R. (2009) Methodological challenges in studying the mental health consequences of disasters. In: Mental health and disasters. ed . Neria, Y., Galea, S. & Norris, F. H., pp . 579–93. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garnefski, N. & Kraaij, V. (2006) Cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire – development of a short 18-item version (CERQ-short). Personality and Individual Differences 41:1045–53.Google Scholar
Gazendam, F. J., Kamphuis, J. H. & Kindt, M. (2013) Deficient safety learning characterizes high trait anxious individuals. Biological Psychology 92:342–52.Google Scholar
Goldberg, D. P. & Hillier, V. F. (1979) A scaled version of the General Health Questionnaire. Psychological Medicine 9:139–45.Google Scholar
Gotlib, I. H. & Joormann, J. (2010) Cognition and depression: Current status and future directions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 6:285–312.Google Scholar
Gottfried, J. A. & Dolan, R. J. (2004) Human orbitofrontal cortex mediates extinction learning while accessing conditioned representations of value. Nature Neuroscience 7:1144–52.Google Scholar
Gray, J. A. (1976) Elements of a two-process theory of learning. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Grillon, C., Baas, J. M., Cornwell, B. & Johnson, L. (2006) Context conditioning and behavioral avoidance in a virtual reality environment: Effect of predictability. Biological Psychiatry 60:752–59.Google Scholar
Gross, J. J. (1998) Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74:224–37. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, J. J. & John, O. P. (2003) Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85:348–62. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348.Google Scholar
Haaker, J., Gaburro, S., Sah, A., Gartmann, N., Lonsdorf, T. B., Meier, K., Singewald, N., Pape, H.-C., Morellini, F. & Kalisch, R. (2013) Single dose of l-dopa makes extinction memories context-independent and prevents the return of fear. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110:E2428–36.Google Scholar
Hahn, S. E. & Smith, C. S. (1999) Daily hassles and chronic stressors: Conceptual and measurement issues. Stress Medicine 15:89–101.Google Scholar
Hatfield, T., Jan, J. S., Conley, M., Gallagher, M. & Holland, P. (1996) Neurotoxic lesions of basolateral, but not central, amygdala interfere with Pavlovian second-order conditioning and reinforcer devaluation effects. Journal of Neuroscience 16:5256–65.Google Scholar
Hochberg, Z., Feil, R., Constancia, M., Fraga, M., Junien, C., Carel, J.-C., Boileau, P., Le Bouc, Y., Deal, C. L., Lillycrop, K., Scharfmann, R., Sheppard, A., Skinner, M., Szyf, M., Waterland, R. A., Waxman, D. J., Whitelaw, E., Ong, K. & Albertsson-Wikland, K. (2010) Child health, developmental plasticity, and epigenetic programming. Endocrine Reviews 32:159–224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holsboer, F. & Ising, M. (2010) Stress hormone regulation: Biological role and translation into therapy. Annual Review of Psychology 61:81–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hosoba, T., Iwanaga, M. & Seiwa, H. (2001) The effect of UCS inflation and deflation procedures on “fear” conditioning. Behaviour Research and Therapy 39:465–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Janicki-Deverts, D. & Cohen, S. (2011) Social ties and resilience in chronic disease. In: Resilience and mental health: Challenges across the lifespan, ed . Southwick, S. M., Litz, B. T., Charney, D. & Friedman, M. J., pp . 76–89. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Javaras, K. N., Schaefer, S. M., van Reekum, C. M., Lapate, R. C., Greischar, L. L., Bachhuber, D. R., Love, G. D., Ryff, C. D. & Davidson, R. J. (2012) Conscientiousness predicts greater recovery from negative emotion. Emotion 12(5):875–81.Google Scholar
Jovanovic, T. & Ressler, K. J. (2010) How the neurocircuitry and genetics of fear inhibition may inform our understanding of PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry 167:648–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalisch, R. (2009) The functional neuroanatomy of reappraisal: Time matters. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 33:1215–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalisch, R. & Gerlicher, A. (2014) Making a mountain out of a molehill: On the role of the rostral dorsal anterior cingulate and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex in conscious threat appraisal, catastrophizing, and worrying. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 42:1–8.Google Scholar
Kalisch, R., Korenfeld, E., Stephan, K. E., Weiskopf, N., Seymour, B. & Dolan, R. J. (2006a) Context-dependent human extinction memory is mediated by a ventromedial prefrontal and hippocampal network. Journal of Neuroscience 26:9503–11.Google Scholar
Kaouane, N., Porte, Y., Vallee, M., Brayda-Bruno, L., Mons, N., Calandreau, L., Marighetto, A., Piazza, P. V. & Desmedt, A. (2012) Glucocorticoids can induce PTSD-like memory impairments in mice. Science 335:1510–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kapur, S., Phillips, A. G. & Insel, T. R. (2012) Why has it taken so long for biological psychiatry to develop clinical tests and what to do about it? Molecular Psychiatry 17:1174–79.Google Scholar
Kent, M., Davis, M. C. & Reich, J. W., eds. (2014) The resilience handbook: Approaches to stress and trauma. Routledge.Google Scholar
Kheirbek, M. A., Klemenhagen, K. C., Sahay, A. & Hen, R. (2012) Neurogenesis and generalization: A new approach to stratify and treat anxiety disorders. Nature Neuroscience 15:1613–20.Google Scholar
Konorski, J. (1967) Integrative activity of the brain: An interdisciplinary approach. The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Korn, C. W., Sharot, T., Walter, H., Heekeren, H. R. & Dolan, R. J. (2014) Depression is related to an absence of optimistically biased belief updating about future life events. Psychological Medicine 44(3):579–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krishnan, V., Han, M. H., Graham, D L., Berton, O., Renthal, W., Russo, S. J., Laplant, Q., Graham, A., Lutter, M., Lagace, D. C., Ghose, S., Reister, R., Tannous, P., Green, T. A., Neve, R. L., Chakravarty, S., Kumar, A., Eisch, A. J., Self, D. W., Lee, F. S., Tamminga, C. A., Cooper, D. C., Gershenfeld, H. K. & Nestler, E. J. (2007) Molecular adaptations underlying susceptibility and resistance to social defeat in brain reward regions. Cell 131:391–404.Google Scholar
Kubiak, T. & Stone, A. A. (2012) Ambulatory monitoring of biobehavioral processes in health and disease. Psychosomatic Medicine 74:325–26.Google Scholar
Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984) Stress, appraisal and coping. Springer.Google Scholar
LeDoux, J. (1998) The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. Simon & Schuster/Touchstone.Google Scholar
Lesch, K.-P. (2011) When the serotonin transporter gene meets adversity: The contribution of animal models to understanding epigenetic mechanisms in affective disorders and resilience. In: Current topics in behavioral neurosciences, vol. 7: Molecular and functional models in neuropsychiatry, ed . Hagan, J. J., pp . 251–80. Springer Berlin Heidelberg.Google Scholar
Levenson, H. (1981) Differentiating among internality, powerful others, and chance. In: Research with the locus of control construct, ed . Lefcourt, H. M., pp . 15–63. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Leventhal, H. & Scherer, K. R. (1987) The relationship of emotion to cognition: A functional approach to a semantic controversy. Cognition and Emotion 1:3–28.Google Scholar
Levy, D. J. & Glimcher, P. W. (2012) The root of all value: A neural common currency for choice. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 22:1027–38.Google Scholar
Liberzon, I. & Knox, D. (2012) Expanding our understanding of neurobiological mechanisms of resilience by using animal models. Neuropsychopharmacology 37:317–18.Google Scholar
Lissek, S., Bradford, D. E., Alvarez, R. P., Burton, P., Espensen-Sturges, T., Reynolds, R. C. & Grillon, C. (2014) Neural substrates of classically conditioned fear-generalization in humans: A parametric fMRI study. Social, Cognitive and Affective Neurosciences 9:1134–42.Google Scholar
Lissek, S., Rabin, S., Heller, R. E., Lukenbaugh, D., Geraci, M., Pine, D. S. & Grillon, C. (2009) Overgeneralization of conditioned fear as a pathogenic marker of panic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 167:47–55. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19917595.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lommen, M. J. J., Engelhard, I. M., Sijbrandij, M., van den Hout, M. A. & Hermans, D. (2013) Pre-trauma individual differences in extinction learning predict posttraumatic stress. Behaviour Research and Therapy 51:63–67.Google Scholar
Mancini, A. D. & Bonanno, G. A. (2009) Predictors and parameters of resilience to loss: Toward an individual differences model. Journal of Personality 77:1805–32.Google Scholar
Mathews, A. & MacLeod, C. (2005) Cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 1:167–95.Google Scholar
McEwen, B. S. & Stellar, E. (1993) Stress and the individual: Mechanisms leading to disease. Archives of Internal Medicine 153(18):2093–101. doi: 10.1001/archinte.1993.00410180039004.Google Scholar
Meaney, M. J. (2010) Epigenetics and the biological definition of gene×environment interactions. Child Development 81:41–79.Google Scholar
Milad, M. R. & Quirk, G. J. (2002) Neurons in medial prefrontal cortex signal memory for fear extinction. Nature 420:70–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milad, M. R. & Quirk, G. J. (2012) Fear extinction as a model for translational neuroscience: Ten years of progress. Annual Review of Psychology 63:129–51. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131631.Google Scholar
Milad, M. R., Wright, C. I., Orr, S. P., Pitman, R. K., Quirk, G. J. & Rauch, S. L. (2007) Recall of fear extinction in humans activates the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus in concert. Biological Psychiatry 62:446–54.Google Scholar
Miller, M. W. & Harrington, K. M. (2011) Personality factors in resilience to traumatic stress. In: Resilience and mental health: Challenges across the lifespan, ed . Southwick, S. M., Litz, B. T., Charney, D. & Friedman, M. J., pp . 56–75. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mitchell, C. J., De Houwer, J. & Lovibond, P. F. (2009) The propositional nature of human associative learning. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 32:183–98.Google Scholar
Moors, A. (2009) Theories of emotion causation: A review. Cognition and Emotion 23(4):625–62. doi: 10.1080/02699930802645739.Google Scholar
Moors, A. (2010) Automatic constructive appraisal as a candidate cause of emotion. Emotion Review 2:139–59.Google Scholar
Moskowitz, T. J., Folkman, S., Collette, L. & Vittinghoff, E. (1996) Coping and mood during AIDS-related caregiving and bereavement. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 18:49–57.Google Scholar
Mowrer, O. H. (1960) Learning theory and behavior. Wiley.Google Scholar
Nasser, H. M. & McNally, G. P. (2012) Appetitive-aversive interactions in Pavlovian fear conditioning. Behavioral Neuroscience 126:404–22.Google Scholar
Nonkes, L. J., Tomson, K., Maertin, A., Dederen, J., Maes, J. H. & Homberg, J. (2010) Orbitofrontal cortex and amygdalar over-activity is associated with an inability to use the value of expected outcomes to guide behaviour in serotonin transporter knockout rats. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 94:65–72.Google Scholar
Norris, F. H. & Elrod, C. L. (2006) Psychosocial consequences of disaster: A review of past research. In: Methods for disaster mental health research, ed . Norris, F. H., Galea, S., Friedman, M. J. & Watson, P. J., pp . 20–44. The Guildford Press.Google Scholar
Norris, F. H. & Kaniasty, K. (1996) Received and perceived social support in times of stress: A test of the social support deterioration deterrence model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71:498–511.Google Scholar
Norris, F. H., Tracy, M. & Galea, S. (2009) Looking for resilience: Understanding the longitudinal trajectories of responses to stress. Social Science and Medicine 68:2190–98.Google Scholar
Ochsner, K. N. & Gross, J. J. (2005) The cognitive control of emotion. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9:242–49.Google Scholar
Olesen, J., Gustavsson, A., Svensson, M., Wittchen, H.-U., Jönsson, B., CDBE2010 study group & European Brain Council (2012) The economic cost of brain disorders in Europe. European Journal of Neurology 19:155–62.Google Scholar
Pearl, J. (2009) Causality: Models, reasoning, and inference, second edition. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Petrowski, K., Paul, S., Albani, C. & Brähler, E. (2012) Factor structure and psychometric properties of the Trier Inventory for Chronic Stress (TICS) in a representative German sample. BMC Medical Research Methodology 12:42.Google Scholar
Phelps, E. A., Delgado, M. R., Nearing, K. I. & LeDoux, J. E. (2004) Extinction learning in humans: Role of the amygdala and vmPFC. Neuron 43:897–905.Google Scholar
Pickens, C. L., Saddoris, M. P., Setlow, B., Gallagher, M., Holland, P. C. & Schoenbaum, G. (2003) Different roles for orbitofrontal cortex and basolateral amygdala in a reinforcer devaluation task. Journal of Neuroscience 23:11078–84.Google Scholar
Popoli, M., Yan, Z., McEwen, B. S. & Sanacora, G. (2012) The stressed synapse: The impact of stress and glucocorticoids on glutamate transmission. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 13:22–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raczka, K. A., Mechias, M. L., Gartmann, N., Reif, A., Deckert, J., Pessiglione, M. & Kalisch, R. (2011) Empirical support for an involvement of the mesostriatal dopamine system in human fear extinction. Translational Psychiatry 1:e12; doi: 10.1038/tp.2011.10.Google Scholar
Reiss, S., Peterson, R. A., Gursky, D. M. & McNally, R. J. (1986) Anxiety sensitivity, anxiety frequency and the prediction of fearfulness. Behaviour Research and Therapy 24:1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reiss, S. & McNally, R. J. (1985) The expectancy model of fear. In: Theoretical issues in behavior therapy, ed . Reiss, S. & Bootzin, R. R., pp . 107–22. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Reissman, D. B., Kowalski-Trakofler, K. M. & Katz, C. L. (2011) Public health practice and disaster resilience: A framework integrating resilience as a worker protection strategy. In: Resilience and mental health: Challenges across the lifespan, ed . Southwick, S. M., Litz, B. T., Charney, D. & Friedman, M. J., pp . 340–58. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. (1974) Effect of inflation of the unconditioned stimulus value following conditioning. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 86:101–106.Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A., Wagner, A. R., Black, A. H. & Prokasy, W. F. (1972) A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In: Classical conditioning II: Current research and theory, ed . Black, A. H. & Prokasy, W. F., pp . 64–99. Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Robinson, M. D. (1998) Running from William James' bear: A review of preattentive mechanisms and their contributions to emotional experience. Cognition and Emotion 12:667–96.Google Scholar
Roseman, I. J. & Smith, C. A. (2001) Appraisal theory: Overview, assumptions, varieties, controversies. In: Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research, ed . Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A. & Johnstone, T., pp . 3–19. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rubin, D. B. (2005) Causal inference using potential outcomes. Journal of the American Statistical Association 100:322–31.Google Scholar
Russo, S. J., Murrough, J. W., Han, M.-H., Charney, D. S. & Nestler, E. J. (2012) Neurobiology of resilience. Nature Neuroscience 15(11):1475–84. doi: 10.1038/nn.3234.Google Scholar
Sander, D., Grafman, J. & Zalla, T. (2003) The human amygdala: An evolved system for relevance detection. Reviews in the Neurosciences 14:303–16.Google Scholar
Sander, D., Grandjean, D. & Scherer, K. R. (2005) A systems approach to appraisal mechanisms in emotion. Neural Networks 18:317–52.Google Scholar
Sapienza, J. K. & Masten, A. S. (2011) Understanding and promoting resilience in children and youth. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 24:267–73.Google Scholar
Scharf, S. H. & Schmidt, M. V. (2012) Animal models of stress vulnerability and resilience in translational research. Current Psychiatry Reports 14:159–65.Google Scholar
Scherer, K. R. (2001) Appraisal considered as a process of multilevel sequential checking. In: Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research, ed . Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A. & Johnstone, T., pp . 92–120. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schiller, D., Levy, I., Niv, Y., LeDoux, J. E. & Phelps, E. A. (2008) From fear to safety and back: Reversal of fear in the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience 28:11517–25.Google Scholar
Schumann, G., Binder, E. B., Holtec, A., de Kloet, E. R., Oedegaarde, K. J., Robbins, T. W., Walker-Tilleya, T. R., Bitterao, I., Brown, V. J., Buitelaar, J., Ciccocioppo, R., Cools, R., Escera, C., Fleischhacker, W., Flor, H., Frith, C. D., Heinz, A., Johnsen, E., Kirschbaum, C., Klingberg, T., Lesch, K.-P., Lewis, S., Maier, W., Mann, K., Martinot, J.-L., Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Müller, C. P. & Müller, W.E. (2013) Stratified medicine for mental disorders. European Neuropsychopharmacology 24:5–50.Google Scholar
Schwager, S. & Rothermund, K. (2014b) The automatic basis of resilience: Adaptive regulation of affect and cognition. In: The resilience handbook: Approaches to stress and trauma, ed . Kent, M., Davis, M. C. & Reich, J. W., pp . 55–72. Routledge.Google Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P. (1972) Learned helplessness. Annual Review of Medicine 23:407–12.Google Scholar
Selye, H. (1976) Stress in health and disease. Butterworth.Google Scholar
Serido, J., Almeida, D. M. & Wethington, E. (2004) Chronic stressors and daily hassles: Unique and interactive relationships with psychological distress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 45:17–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Solomon, R. L. & Corbit, J. D. (1974) An opponent-process theory of motivation. I. Temporal dynamics of affect. Psychological Review 81:119–45.Google Scholar
Southwick, S. M. & Charney, D. S. (2012) The science of resilience: Implications for the prevention and treatment of depression. Science 338(6103):79–82.Google Scholar
Southwick, S. M., Litz, B. T., Charney, D. & Friedman, M. J., eds. ( 2011a) Resilience and mental health: Challenges across the lifespan. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Southwick, S. M., Pietrzak, R. H. & White, G. (2011b) Interventions to enhance resilience and resilience-related constructs in adults. In: Resilience and mental health: Challenges across the lifespan, ed . Southwick, S. M., Litz, B. T., Charney, D. & Friedman, M. J., pp . 289–306. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Stahl, C., Voss, A., Schmitz, F., Nuszbaum, M., Tüscher, O., Lieb, K. & Klauer, K. C. (2014) Behavioral components of impulsivity. Journal of Experimental Psychology – General 143:850–86.Google Scholar
Sterling, P. & Eyer, J. (1988) Allostasis: A new paradigm to explain arousal pathways. In: Handbook of life stress, cognition and health, ed . Fischer, S. & Reason, J. T., pp . 629–49. Wiley.Google Scholar
Stewart, D. E. & Yuen, T. (2011) A systematic review of resilience in the physically ill. Psychosomatics 52:199–209.Google Scholar
Sullivan, M. J. L., Bishop, S. R. & Pivik, J. (1995) The pain catastrophizing scale: Development and validation. Psychological Assessment 7:524–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Troy, A. S. & Mauss, I. B. (2011) Resilience in the face of stress: Emotion regulation as a protective factor. In: Resilience and mental health: Challenges across the lifespan, ed . Southwick, S. M., Litz, B. T., Charney, D. & Friedman, M. J., pp . 30–44. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Verduyn, P., Van Mechelen, I., Kross, E., Chezzi, C. & Van Bever, F. (2012) The relationship between self-distanciing and the duration of negative and positive emotional experiences in daily life. Emotion 12:1248–63.Google Scholar
Vervliet, B., Vansteenwegen, D. & Eelen, P. (2006) Generalization gradients for acquisition and extinction in human contingency learning. Experimental Psychology 53:132–42.Google Scholar
Weiner, H. (1992) Perturbing the organism: The biology of stressful experience. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Werner, E. E. (1993) Risk, resilience, and recovery: Perspectives from the Kauai Longitudinal Study. Development and Psychopathology 5(4):503–15.Google Scholar
White, K. & Davey, G. C. L. (1989) Sensory preconditioning and UCS inflation in human “fear” conditioning. Behaviour Research and Therapy 27:161–66.Google Scholar
Wittchen, H. U., Jacobi, F., Rehm, J., Gustavsson, A., Svensson, M., Jönsson, B., Olesen, J., Allgulander, C., Alonso, J., Faravelli, C., Fratiglioni, L., Jennum, P., Lieb, R., Maercker, A., van Os, J., Preisig, M., Salvador-Carulla, L., Simon, R. & Steinhausen, H.-C. (2011) The size and burden of mental disorders and other disorders of the brain in Europe 2010. European Neuropsychopharmacology 21:655–79.Google Scholar
Xu, W. & Südhof, T. C. (2013) A neural circuit for memory specificity and generalization. Science 339:1290–95.Google Scholar
Zautra, A. J. (2000) The role of stressful events in the relationship between positive and negative affects: Evidence from field and experimental studies. Journal of Personality 68:927–51.Google Scholar
Zautra, A. J. (2014) Resilience is social, after all. In: The resilience handbook, ed . Kent, M., Davis, M. C. & Reich, J. W., pp . 185–96. Routledge.Google Scholar