Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-17T05:29:24.389Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Early executive function: The influence of culture and bilingualism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 July 2018

CRYSTAL D. TRAN ,
MARIA M. ARREDONDO  and
HANAKO YOSHIDA
CRYSTAL D. TRAN*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of St. Thomas
MARIA M. ARREDONDO
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia
HANAKO YOSHIDA
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Houston
*
Address for correspondence: Crystal D. Tran, Department of Psychology, 3800 Montrose Boulevard, University of St. Thomas, Houston, TX 77006trandn1@stthom.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Evidence suggests that cultural experiences and learning multiple languages have measurable effects on children's development of executive function (EF). However, the precise impact of how bilingualism and culture contribute to observed effects remains inconclusive. The present study aims to investigate how these factors shape the development of early EF constructs longitudinally, between monolingual and bilingual children at ages 3, 3½ and 4 years, with a set of EF tasks that are uniquely relevant to the effects of bilingualism and cultural practices. We hypothesize that the effects of bilingualism and cultural backgrounds (i.e., Eastern) are based on different, though related, cognitive control processes associated with different EF constructs. Results revealed a significant bilingualism effect on cognitive control processes measuring selective attention, switching, and inhibition; while an effect of culture was most pronounced on behavioral regulation/response inhibition. Contributions of bilingualism and cultural experiences on individual EF constructs across development are discussed.

Keywords

executive functioncognitive controlbilingualismcross-cultural comparisonlongitudinalcognitive developmentearly childhoodshiftingresponse inhibition
Type
Research Article
Information
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition , Volume 22 , Issue 4 , August 2019 , pp. 714 - 732
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

* A version of this paper was presented at the Society for Research in Child Development meeting in 2011. This research was supported by the National Institutes of Health grant (R01 HD058620), Foundation for Child Development: Young Scholars Program, and the University of Houston's Grants to Enhance and Advance Research (GEAR) program. We especially want to extend our gratitude to the families and institutions in the U.S., Argentina, and Vietnam who participated in the present study, and Drs. Linda B. Smith and Larissa K. Samuelson for valuable feedback on a previous version of the manuscript.

References

Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. W. (2007). Bilingual language production: The neurocognition of language representation and control. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20, 242–275.Google Scholar
Ahadi, S. A., Rothbart, M. K., & Ye, R. (1993). Children's temperament in the US and China similarities and differences. European Journal of Personality, 7, 359–377.Google Scholar
Alvarado, C. G. (2000). A theoretical and empirical study of the English/Spanish bilingual verbal ability tests. (assessment, second-grade, third-grade). Dissertation Abstracts International: Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 60 (7–A), 2336.Google Scholar
Anderson, V. (1989). Assessing executive functions in children: biological, psychological, and developmental considerations. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 8, 319–349.Google Scholar
Anton, E., Dunabeitia, J. A., Estevez, A., Hernandez, J. A., Castillo, A., Fuentes, L. J., Davidson, D. J., & Carreiras, M. (2014). Is there a bilingual advantage in the ANT task? Evidence from children. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1–12.Google Scholar
Arredondo, M. M., Hu, X., Satterfield, T., & Kovelman, I. (2016). Bilingualism alters children's frontal lobe functioning for attentional control. Developmental science, 20 (3).Google Scholar
Baker, S., Kovelman, L., Bialystok, E., & Petitto, L. A. (2003). Bilingual children's complex linguistic experience yields a cognitive advantage. Published abstracts of the Society for Neuroscience. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Barac, R., Moreno, S., & Bialystok, E. (2016). Behavioral and electro- physiological differences in executive control between monolingual and bilingual children. Child Development, 87, 1277–1290.Google Scholar
Bellah, R., Madsen, R., Sullivan, W., Swidler, A., & Tipton, S. (1985). Habits of the heart: Individualism and commitment in American life. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Bernstein, D. M., Atance, C., Meltzoff, A. N., & Loftus, G. R. (2007). Hindsight bias and developing theories of mind. Child Development, 78, 1374–1394.Google Scholar
Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81, 1641–1660.Google Scholar
Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2011). Relations between Executive Function and Academic Achievement from Ages 5 to 17 in a Large, Representative National Sample. Learning and Individual Differences, 21 (4), 327–336.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E. (1999). Cognitive complexity and attentional control in the bilingual mind. Child Development, 70, 636–644.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E. (2001). Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy, and cognition. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E. (2017). The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience. Psychological Bulletin, 143 (3), 233–262.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Luk, G. (2008). Cognitive control and lexical access in younger and older bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 34, 859–873.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Martin, M. M. (2004). Attention and inhibition in bilingual children: Evidence from the dimensional change card sort task. Developmental Science, 7, 325–339.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Poarch, G., Luo, L., & Craik, F. I. M. (2014). Effects of bilingualism and aging on executive function and working memory. Psychology and Aging, 29, 696–705.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Viswanathan, M. (2009). Components of executive control with advantages for bilingual children in two cultures. Cognition, 112, 494–500.Google Scholar
Biedinger, N. (2011). The influence of education and home environment on the cognitive outcomes of preschool children in Germany. Child Development Research, 2011.Google Scholar
Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78 (2), 647–663.Google Scholar
Blumenfeld, H. K., & Marian, V. (2007). Constraints on parallel activation in bilingual spoken language processing: Examining proficiency and lexical status using eye-tracking. Language and Cognitive Processes, 25, 633–660.Google Scholar
Bonifacci, P., Giombini, L., Bellocchi, S., & Contento, S. (2011). Speed of processing, anticipation, inhibition and working memory in bilinguals. Developmental Science, 14, 256–269.Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., & Cote, L. R. (2004). Mothers’ parenting cognitions in cultures of origin, acculturating cultures, and cultures of destination. Child Development,75, 221–235.Google Scholar
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371–399.Google Scholar
Brysbaert, M. (1998). Word recognition in bilinguals: Evidence against the existence of two separate lexicons. Psychologica Belgica, 23, 163–175.Google Scholar
Burns, E. B., & Charlip, J. A. (2006). Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M. (2005). Developmentally sensitive measures of executive function in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 595–616.Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M., & Choi, H. P. (2008, July). Bilingualism and cultural influences on the development of executive function. Presented at the biennial meeting of the International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development, Würzburg, Germany.Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2008). Bilingual experience and executive functioning in young children. Developmental Science, 11, 282–298.Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M., & Moses, L. J. (2001). Individual differences in inhibitory control and children's theory of mind. Child Development, 72, 1032–1053.Google Scholar
Chao, R., & Tseng, V. (2002). Parenting of Asians. In Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 4 (2nd ed.): Social conditions and applied parenting (pp. 59–93). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Chasiotis, A., Kiessling, F., Hofer, J., & Campos, D. (2006). Theory of mind and inhibitory control in three cultures: Conflict inhibition predicts false belief understanding in Germany, Costa Rica and Cameroon. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30, 249–260.Google Scholar
Chen, X., Hastings, P. D., Rubin, K. H., Chen, H., Cen, G., & Stewart, S. L. (1998). Childrearing attitudes and behavioral inhibition in Chinese and Canadian toddlers: A crosscultural study. Developmental Psychology, 34, 677–686.Google Scholar
Costa, A., Hernández, M., & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2008). Bilingualism aids conflict resolution: Evidence from the ANT task. Cognition, 106, 59–86.Google Scholar
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16 (3), 297–334.Google Scholar
Davis-Kean, P. E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: The indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 294–304.Google Scholar
De Baene, W., Duyck, W., Brass, M., & Carreiras, M. (2015). Brain circuit for cognitive control is shared by task and language switching. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 27, 1752–1765.Google Scholar
Development Economics LDB database. (2008). GDP [World Data Indicators]. Retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CDGoogle Scholar
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review in Psychology, 64, 135–168.Google Scholar
Diamond, A, Barnett, W. S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S. (2007). Preschool program improves cognitive control. Science, 318 (5855), 1387–1388.Google Scholar
Diamond, A., Kirkham, N., & Amso, D. (2002). Conditions under which young children CAN hold two rules in mind and inhibit a prepotent response. Developmental Psychology, 38, 352–362.Google Scholar
Duñabeitia, J. A., Hernández, J. A., Antón, E., Macizo, P., Estévez, A., Fuentes, L. J., & Carreiras, M. (2014). The inhibitory advantage in bilingual children revisited. Experimental Psychology, 61, 234–251.Google Scholar
Engel de Abreu, P. M., Cruz-Santos, A., Tourinho, C. J., Martin, R., & Bialystok, E. (2012). Bilingualism enriches the poor: Enhanced cognitive control in low income minority children. Psychological Science, 23, 1364–1371.Google Scholar
Esposito, A. G., Baker-Ward, L., & Mueller, S. (2013). Interference suppression vs. response inhibition: An explanation for the absence of a bilingual advantage in preschoolers’ Stroop task performance. Cognitive Development, 28, 354–363.Google Scholar
Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Sommer, T., Raz, A., & Posner, M. I. (2002). Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 340–347.Google Scholar
Fenson, L., Dale, P. S., Reznick, J. S., Thal, D., Bates, E., Hartung, J. P., Pethick, S., & Reilly, J. S. (1993). The MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories: User's Guide and Technical Manual. San Diego: Singular Publishing Group.Google Scholar
Fisher, A. V. (2011). Automatic shifts of attention in the Dimension Change Card Sort task: Subtle changes in task materials lead to flexible switching. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108, 211–219.Google Scholar
Francis, N. (1999). Bilingualism, writing, and metalinguistic awareness: Oral-literate interactions between first and second languages. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20, 533–561.Google Scholar
Frye, D., Zelazo, P. D., & Palfai, T. (1995). Theory of mind and rule-based reasoning. Cognitive Development, 10, 483–527.Google Scholar
Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 31–60.Google Scholar
Gathercole, V. C. M., Thomas, E. M., Kennedy, I., Prys, C., Young, N., Vinas Guasch, N., Roberts, E. J., Hughes, E. K., & Jones, L. (2014). Does language dominance affect cognitive performance in bilinguals? Lifespan evidence from preschoolers through older adults on cardsorting, Simon, and metalinguistic tasks. Frontiers in Psychololgy, 5:11.Google Scholar
Gerstadt, C. L., Hong, Y. J., & Diamond, A. (1994). The relationship between cognition and action: Performance of children 3-and-a-half to 7-years old on a Stroop-like day-night test. Cognition, 53, 129–153.Google Scholar
Gold, S. (1992a). Mental health and illness in Vietnamese refugees. The Western Journal of Medicine, 157, 290–295.Google Scholar
Gold, S. (1992b). Vietnamese refugees: Background and characteristics. In Stanfield, J. (Ed.), Refugee Communities: A Comparative Field Study (pp. 47–66). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Gollan, T., & Kroll, J. F. (2001). Bilingual lexical access. In Rapp, B. (Ed.), The handbook of cognitive neuropsychology: What deficits reveal about the human mind (pp. 321–345). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Guttentag, R. E., Haith, M. M., Goodman, G. S., & Hauch, J. (1984). Semantic processing of unattended words by bilinguals: A test of the input switch mechanism. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 23, 178–188.Google Scholar
Haskins, W. A., & Eggleston, T. (2003). Freedom of speech: Cross-cultural perspectives in Argentina, France, Japan, Nigeria, Qatar, South Korea, and the United States. International Journal of Humanities, 1, 961–978.Google Scholar
He, J. & van de Vijver, F. (2012). Bias and equivalence in cross-cultural research. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2 (2), 1–19.Google Scholar
Ho, D. Y. F. (1994). Cognitive socialization in Confucian heritage cultures. In Greenfield, Patricia M. and Cocking, Rodney R. (Eds.), Cross-cultural roots of minority child development (pp. 285–313). Hillsdale, NJ, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.Google Scholar
Ho, D. Y. F., & Chiu, C. Y. (1994). Component ideas of individualism, collectivism, and social organization: An application in the study of Chinese culture. In Kim, Uichol, Triandis, Harry C., Kâğitçibaşi, Çiğdem, Choi, Sang-Chin, and Yoon, Gene, (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications (pp. 137–156). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills: Sage.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. London: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
John, D. & Catherine, T. MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Socioeconomic Status and Health. Retrieved from http://www.macses.ucsf.eduGoogle Scholar
Kalashnikova, M., & Mattock, K. (2014). Maturation of executive func- tioning skills in early sequential bilingualism. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17, 111–123.Google Scholar
Kloo, D., & Perner, J. (2005). Disentangling dimensions in the dimensional change card sorting task. Developmental Science, 8, 44–56.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36, 220–232.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Murray, K., Jacques, T. Y., Koenig, A. L., & Vandegeest, K. A. (1996). Inhibitory control in young children and its role in emerging internalization. Child Development, 67, 490–507.Google Scholar
Kroll, J. F., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Understanding the consequences of bilingualism for language processing and cognition. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25, 497–514.Google Scholar
Kroll, J. F., & Dijkstra, A. (2002). The bilingual lexicon. In Kaplan, R. (Ed.), Handbook of Applied Linguistics (pp. 301–321). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kopp, C. B. (1982). Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18, 199–214.Google Scholar
Kuwabara, M., & Smith, L. B. (2012). Cross-cultural differences in cognitive development: Attention to relations and objects. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 113, 20–35.Google Scholar
Laird, N. M., & Ware, J. H. (1982). Random-Effects Models for Longitudinal Data. Biometrics (International Biometric Society), 38 (4), 963–974.Google Scholar
Leon-Guerrero, S. L., Smith, S., & Luk, G. (2016). Home language usage and cognitive control in bilingual preschoolers. In Cognitive control and consequences in the multilingual mind. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing.Google Scholar
Lillard, A. S., & Else-Quest, N. (2006). The early years: evaluating montessori. Science 313, 1893–1894.Google Scholar
Luk, G., Green, D. W., Abutalebi, J., & Grady, C. L. (2012). Cognitive control for language switching in bilinguals: A quantitative meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies. Language and Cognitive Processes, 27, 1479.1488.Google Scholar
Lytle, A., Brett, J. M., Barsness, Z., Tinsley, C., & Janssens, M. (1994). A paradigm for confirmatory cross-cultural research in organizational behavior. In Staw, B. M. & Cummings, L. L. (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior, Vol. 17 (pp. 167–214). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253.Google Scholar
Martin-Rhee, M. M., & Bialystok, E. (2008). The development of two types of inhibitory control in monolingual and bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 11 (1), 81–93.Google Scholar
Matsuoka, J. K. (1990). Differential acculturation among Vietnamese refugees. Social Work, 35 (4), 341–345.Google Scholar
McAuley, T., Christ, S. E., & White, D. A. (2011). Mapping the development of response inhibition in young children using a modified day-night task. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36, 539–551.Google Scholar
McLean, R. A., Sanders, W. L., & Stroup, W. W. (1991). A Unified Approach to Mixed Linear Models. The American Statistician (American Statistical Association), 45 (1), 54–64.Google Scholar
Mezzacappa, E. (2004). Alerting, orienting, and executive attention: Developmental properties and sociodemographic correlates in an epidemiological sample of young, urban children. Child Development, 75, 1373–1386.Google Scholar
Mischel, W., Ebbesen, E. B., & Zeiss, A. R. (1972). Cognitive and attentional mechanisms in delay of gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 21, 204–218.Google Scholar
Miyake, A, Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.Google Scholar
Montgomery, D. E., Anderson, M., & Uhl, E. (2008). Interference control in preschoolers: factors influencing performance on the day–night task. Infant Child Dev, 17, 457–470.Google Scholar
Montgomery, D. E., & Fosco, W. (2012). The effect of delayed responding on stroop-like task performance among preschoolers. The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development, 173, 142–157.Google Scholar
Morales, J., Calvo, A., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Working Memory Development in Monolingual and Bilingual Children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 114, 187–202.Google Scholar
Moriguchi, Y., Sakata, Y., Ishibashi, M., & Ishikawa, Y. (2015). Teaching others rule-use improves executive function and prefrontal activations in young children. Frontiers in Psychology, 6: 894.Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., & Norenzayan, A. (2001). Culture and systems of thought: Holistic vs. analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 108, 291–310.Google Scholar
Noble, K. G., Norman, M. F., & Farah, M. J. (2005). Neurocognitive correlates of socioeconomic status in kindergarten children. Developmental Science, 8, 74–87.Google Scholar
Nowak, T. (1998). Vietnamese-Americans. In Purnell, L. D. & Paulanka, B. J. (Eds.), Transcultural health care: a culturally competent approach (pp. 449–477). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company.Google Scholar
Ogura, T., & Watamaki, T. (1997). Japanese Communicative Developmental Inventories: user's guide and technical manual. San Diego, CA: Singular.Google Scholar
Ogura, T., Yamashita, Y., Murase, T., & Dale, P. (1993). Some preliminary findings from the Japanese Early Communicative Inventory. Paper presented at the 6th International Conference for Child Language, Trieste, Italy.Google Scholar
Oh, S., & Lewis, C. (2008). Korean preschoolers' advanced inhibitory control and its relation to other executive skills and mental state understanding. Child Development, 79, 80–99.Google Scholar
Okanda, M., Moriguchi, Y., & Itakura, S. (2010). Language and cognitive shifting: Evidence from young monolingual and bilingual children. Psychological Reports, 107, 68–78.Google Scholar
Oller, D. K. (2005). The distributed characteristic in bilingual learning. In Cohen, J., McAlister, K. T., Rolstad, K., & MacSawn, J. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism (pp. 58–77). Somerville, M.A.: Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar
Oller, D. K., & Pearson, B. Z. (2002). Assessing the effects of bilingualism: A background. In Oller, D. K. & Eilers, R. E. (Eds.), Language and Literacy in Bilingual Children (pp. 3–21). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Paap, K. R., & Greenberg, Z. I. (2013). There is no coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing. Cognitive Psychology, 66, 232–258.Google Scholar
Parmar, P., Harkness, S., & Super, C. M. (2004). Asian and Euro-American Parents’ Ethnotheories of Play and Learning: Effects on Pre-School Children's Home Routines and School Behavior. International Journal of Behavioral Development 28, 97–104.Google Scholar
Parrado, E. A., & Cerrutti, M. (2003). Labor migration between developing countries: The case of Paraguay and Argentina. International Migration Review, 37, 101–132.Google Scholar
Pearson, B. Z., Fernández, S. C., & Oller, D. K. (1993), Lexical Development in Bilingual Infants and Toddlers: Comparison to Monolingual Norms. Language Learning, 43, 93–120.Google Scholar
Phinney, J. S., Ong, A., & Madden, T. (2000). Cultural values and intergenerational value discrepancies in immigrant and non-immigrant families. Child Development, 71 (2), 528–539.Google Scholar
Prior, A., Goldwasser, N., Ravet-Hirsh, R., & Schwartz, M. (2016). Executive functions in bilingual children: Is there a role for language balance? In Schwieter (Ed.), Cognitive control and consequences of multilingualism: Bilingual Processing and Acquisition, 2, 323–350.Google Scholar
Reed, M., Pien, D. L., & Rothbart, M. K. (1984). Inhibitory self-control in preschool children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 30, 131–147.Google Scholar
Riggs, N. R., Blair, C. B., & Greenberg, M. T. (2003). Concurrent and 2-year longitudinal relations between executive function and the behavior of 1st and 2nd grade children. Child Neuropsychology, 9, 267–276.Google Scholar
Sabbagh, M. A., Moses, L. J., & Shiverick, S. (2006a). Executive functioning and preschoolers’ understanding of false beliefs, false photographs, and false signs. Child Development, 77, 1034–1049.Google Scholar
Sabbagh, M. A., Xu, F., Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Lee, K. (2006b). The development of executive functioning and theory of mind. Psychological Science, 17, 74–81.Google Scholar
Sebastián-Gallés, N., Albareda-Castellot, B., Weikum, W. M., & Werker, J. F. (2012). A bilingual advantage in visual language discrimination in infancy. Psychological Science, 23 (9), 994–999.Google Scholar
Schwieter, J. W. (Ed.) (2016). Cognitive control and consequences of multilingualism. Amsterdam, The Netherlands/Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing.Google Scholar
Simpson, A., & Riggs, K. J. (2005). Inhibitory and working memory demands of the day-night task in children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 23, 471–486.Google Scholar
Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Singh, L., Fu, C. L., Rahman, A. A., Hameed, W. B., Sanmugam, S., Agarwal, P., & . . . Rifkin-Graboi, A. (2015). Back to basics: A bilingual advantage in infant visual habituation. Child Development, 86 (1), 294–302.Google Scholar
Smith, M. C. (1997). How do bilinguals access lexical information? In de Groot, Annette M. B. and Kroll, Judith F. (Eds.), Tutorials in bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Perspectives (pp. 145–168). Mahwan, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.Google Scholar
Smith, J. R., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P. K. (1997). Consequences of living in poverty for young children's cognitive and verbal ability and early school achievement. In Duncan, G. J. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.), Consequences of growing up poor (pp. 132–189). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Soliman, A. M. (2014). Bilingual advantages of working memory revisited: a latent variable examination. Learn. Individ. Differ. 32, 168–177.Google Scholar
Sui, D., Fouladi, R. T., & Shieh, Y. Y. (2002). General linear mixed models of longitudinal studies: Small samples, varied distributional conditions, and missing data. Proceedings of the Joint Statistical Meetings, American Statistical Association, August 11–15, New York, pp. 1026–1031.Google Scholar
Tare, M., & Linck, J. (2011). Exploring bilingual cognitive advantages when controlling for background variables. In 52nd Annual meeting of The Psychonomic Society, Seattle, WA.Google Scholar
Tobin, J., Wu, D., & Davidson, D. (1989). Preschool in Three Cultures: Japan, China, and the United States. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Tran, C. D., Arredondo, M. M., & Yoshida, H. (2015). Differential effects of bilingualism and culture on early attention: A longitudinal study in the U.S., Argentina, and Vietnam. Frontiers in Psychology, 6 (795), 1–15.Google Scholar
Tran, C. D., & Yoshida, H. (2012 June). A Mechanistic Perspective on Conservation Task Performances. Talk presented at the 42nd Annual Conference of the Jean Piaget Society (JPS): Rethinking Cognitive Development, Toronto, Canada.Google Scholar
Triandis, H. C. (1994). Culture and social behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Triandis, H. C. (1995). Collectivism v. individualism: A reconceptualization of a basic concept in cross-cultural social psychology. In Verma, G. K. & Bagley, C. (Eds.), Cross-cultural studies of personality, attitudes and cognition (pp. 60–95). London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Triandis, H. C. (1999). Cross-cultural psychology. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 2, 127–143.Google Scholar
Umbel, V. M., Pearson, B. Z., Fernandez, M. C., & Oller, D. K. (1992). Measuring bilingual children's receptive vocabularies. Child Development, 63, 1012–1020.Google Scholar
Van de Vijver, F., & Tanzer, N. K. (2004). Bias and equivalence in cross-cultural assessment: An overview. European Review of Psychological Application, 54, 119–135.Google Scholar
Varnum, M. E. W., Grossmann, I., Kitayama, S., & Nisbett, R. E. (2009). The origin of cultural differences in cognition: The social orientation hypothesis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1–5.Google Scholar
Vuong, G. T. (1976). Getting to Know the Vietnamese and their Culture. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT press.Google Scholar
Vygotsky, L. S. (1967). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Sov. Psychol. 5, 6–18.Google Scholar
Welsh, M. C., Pennington, B. F., & Groisser, D. B. (1991). A normative-developmental study of executive function: A window of prefrontal function in children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 7, 131–149.Google Scholar
Wimmer, M. C., & Marx, C. (2014). Inhibitory processes in visual perception: A bilingual advantage. Journal Of Experimental Child Psychology, 126 412–419.Google Scholar
Witkin, H. A., & Berry, J. W. (1975). Psychological differentiation in cross-cultural perspective. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 1, 5–87.Google Scholar
Wu, D. Y. H. (1996). Parental control: Psychocultural interpretations of Chinese patterns of socialization. In Lau, S. (Ed.), Growing up the Chinese way (pp. 1–68). Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong Press.Google Scholar
Yang, S., & Yang, H. (2016). Bilingual effects on deployment of the attention system in linguistically and culturally homogeneous children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 146, 121–136.Google Scholar
Yang, S., Yang, H., & Lust, B. (2011). Early childhood bilingualism leads to advances in executive attention: Dissociating culture and language. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 14, 412–422.Google Scholar
Yoshida, H., Tran, C. D., Benitez, V., & Kuwabara, M. (2011). Inhibition and adjective learning in bilingual and monolingual children. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 1–14.Google Scholar
Yow, W. Q., Li, X., Lam, S., Gliga, T., Chong, Y. S., Kwek, K., & Broekman, B. P. (2017). A bilingual advantage in 54-month-olds’ use of referential cues in fast mapping. Developmental Science, 20 (1), 1–15.Google Scholar
Yow, W. Q., & Markman, E. M. (2015). A bilingual advantage in how children integrate multiple cues to understand a speaker's referential intent. Bilingualism: Language And Cognition, 18 (3), 391–399.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., Carter, A., Reznick, J. S., & Frye, D. (1997). Early development of executive function: A problem-solving framework. Review of General Psychology, 1, 198–226.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., Frye, D., & Rapus, T. (1996). An age-related dissociation between knowing rules and using them. Cognitive Development, 11 (1), 37–63.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., Muller, U., Frye, D., & Marcovitch, S. (2003). The development of executive function in early childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 68 (3, Serial No. 274).Google Scholar