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⁵ e.g. P. Crummy, Excavations at Culver Street, the Gilberd School and Other Sites in Colchester 1971–1985 (1992)

⁶ e.g. M.R. Cagnat, Les deux camps de légion IIIe Auguste á Lambèse d'après les fouilles recentes (1908).

⁷ Breeze, D.J., ‘Pay grades and ranks below the centurionate’, JRS lxi (1971), 134 and A. von Domazewski, Die Rangordnung des römischen Heeres. 2. Durchgesehene Auflage. Einführung, Berichtigungen und Nachträge von B. Dobson (1967), 28ff.Google Scholar

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¹⁰ CIL VIII.217 with p. 2353 = ILS 2658; Birley, E., ‘Promotions and transfers in the Roman army. II: the centurionate’, Carnuntum Jb. viii (1965), 23.Google Scholar

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¹² idem.

¹³ Summerly, J.R., Studies in the Legionary Centurionate (unpub. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Durham, 1990), 227.Google Scholar

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¹⁵ ibid., 205.

¹⁶ ibid., 194.

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¹⁹ Dobson, op. cit. (note 2), 204.

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²¹ B. Dobson, Die primipilares. Entwicklung und Bedeutung, Laufbahnen und Persönlichkeiten eines römischen Offiziersranges (1978), 114.

²² Dobson, op. cit. (note 2), 203.

²³ See Table 1, based on L. Wierschowski, Heer und Wirtschaft. Das römische Heer der Prinzipatszeit als Wirtschaftsfaktor (1984), 39.

²⁴ Campbell, B., ‘The marriage of soldiers under the empire’, JRS lxviii (1978), 1663–6.Google Scholar

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²⁶ Digest XXIII.2.63ff., Tab. Vindol. 11.291, and a number of epigraphic records. It may be worth noting, that a number of primipilares had marriage links with other equestrian and even senatorial families (B. Dobson, ‘The centurionate and social mobility during the principate’, in Nicolet (ed.), Recherches sur les structures sociales dans l'antiquité classique (1970), 110f.).

²⁷ H. von Petrikovits, Die Innenbauten römischer Legionslager während der Prinzipatszeit (1975), 62 and 134.

²⁸ Sander, E.G., ‘Das Recht des römischen Soldaten’, Rheinisches Museum für Philologie N.F. ci (1958), 153.Google Scholar

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³⁰ C. van Driel-Murray, paper delivered to 1992 Roman Military Equipment Conference in Newcastle.

³¹ L. Wierschowski, Heer und Wirtschaft. Das römische Heer der Prinzipatszeit als Wirtschaftsfaktor (1984), 70.

³² Saller, R.P. and Shaw, B.D., ‘Tombstones and family relations in the principate: civilians, soldiers and slaves’, JRS lxxiv (1984), 124–56.Google Scholar

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³⁸ ibid., 627ff. and table x.

³⁹ von Domazewski, op. cit. (note 7), 90ff.

⁴⁰ B. Dobson in von Domazewski, op. cit. (note 7), xxiiiff.

⁴¹ Davison, op. cit. (note 37), 622, gives wider variations but the published plans of the site (Das im Auftrag des Rheinischen Provinzialverbandes vom Bonner Provinzialmuseum 1887-1900 ausgegrabene Legionslager, Tafeln, and Koenen, C., ‘Beschreibung von Novaesium’, Bonner Jb. cxi/cxii (1904)) show only the two sizes quoted.Google Scholar

⁴² von Petrikovits, op. cit. (note 27), 110 and fig. 33.

⁴³ ibid., 106.

⁴⁴ The drain is shown on Groller's plan of 1900 (Groller (1901), Taf. XI fig. 11), but was not found when Nowotny re-examined the site ten years later (Nowotny (1914), Taf. III). It should be noted that most of the structures shown in the Carnuntum plans are probably Diocletianic (von Petrikovits, op. cit. (note 27), 30) and show other features not found in earlier barracks.

⁴⁵ The drains of Carnuntum Geb. XXVIId (Groller (1903), 80f. and figs 41–2) were initially interpreted as heating ducts.

⁴⁶ Groller, M. von, ‘Das Lager Carnuntum’, in Wissenschaften, Kaiserliche Akademie der (ed.), Der römische Limes in Österreich VI (1905), 83f.Google Scholar

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⁵⁰ F.G. Simpson, Watermills and Military Works on Hadrian's Wall (ed. G. Simpson, 1976), pls 53–5.

⁵¹ e.g. Ostia III, VII, 3–5 and Herculaneum IV, 3, 4 (J.E. Packer, The Insulae of Imperial Ostia (1971), plan 22 and 53).

⁵² Jakobi, op. cit. (note 48), 56.

⁵³ Packer, op. cit. (note 51), 290.

⁵⁴ Simpson, op. cit. (note 50), pl. 53.

⁵⁵ The term ‘hydraulic concrete’ is used here for the typical Roman concrete used in the linings of basins. Frequent analysis has shown that it differs from normal concrete by the addition of pozzuolana earths or substances with similar characteristics.

⁵⁶ Chr. Simonett, ‘Grabungen der Gesellschaft Pro Vindonissa im Jahre 1938’, Zeitschrift für Schweizerische Archaeologie und Kunstgeschichte 1,2. (1939), 89.

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⁵⁹ Crummy, op. cit. (note 5).

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⁶³ My thanks to Dr M. Gechter for drawing my attention to these features.

⁶⁴ H. Th. Fischer and S. Rieckhoff-Pauli, Von den Römern zu den Bajuwaren – Stadtarchaeologie in Regensburg (1982), 44–52.

⁶⁵ The example at Carnuntum Bau XXVId which was originally interpreted as a drain (Groller, op. cit. (note 46), 80f. and figs 41–2) has been included here as it is similar to other hypocausts that have since been found linked to praefurnia.

⁶⁶ P.J. Casey and B. Hoffmann, ‘Excavations at Alstone Cottage, Caerleon, 1970’, above, p. 72.

⁶⁷ An example of just what could have been created in these rooms can be seen in the reconstructed wall-painting from Echzell, which was found in the quarters of an auxiliary officer, probably a decurion (M. Schleiermacher, ‘Die Wand- und Deckenmalereien aus dem Kastell Echzell’, in H. Vetter and M. Kandler (eds), Akten des XIV. Intemationalen Limeskongresses 1986 in Carnuntum (1990), 431ff.

⁶⁸ Theoretically a door might be equally possible, but this seems unlikely in view of the evidence presented below.

⁶⁹ Packer, op. cit. (note 51), and R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia (1960), 242.

⁷⁰ Meiggs, op. cit. (note 69), 244.

⁷¹ See Nowotny, E., ‘Ausgrabungen im Lager Carnuntum’, in Wissenschaften, Kaiserliche Akademie der (ed.), Der romische Limes in Österreich 12 (1994), 1–222 for the enlarging and interlinking of structures in the retentura. The suite type is found in Gebäude B, C?, XIII, XVIII, XXIV?, XXVI, XXVII, XXXI, XXXIV, 1 Ost, 4 Ost, 5 Ost, 6 and 7 Ost.Google Scholar

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⁷⁸ Packer, op. cit. (note 51), pls 6, 7, 20f., 29f. et al.

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⁸⁶ S. Ward and T.J. Strickland, Chester Excavations, Northgate Brewery 1974. A Roman Centurion's Quarter and Barrack (1978), 22f.

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⁸⁸ Such conservatism is also visible in other features such as the passages separating centurions' quarters from the contubernia (mentioned above), which can often be traced as vestigial features in much later rebuildings of barracks that originally contained them, e.g. Carnuntum Geb. XVIII, XXIV and possibly Bau 4 Ost.

⁸⁹ von Petrikovits, op. cit. (note 27), 145.

⁹⁰ Packer, op. cit. (note 51), 62 and Meiggs, op. cit. (note 69), 237f.

⁹¹ Trans. M.H. Morgan

⁹² Y. Le Bohec, La Troisième Légion Auguste (1989).