In her 2021 monograph Explorations in the Icy North, Nanna Katrine Lüders Kaalund examines various Arctic travel narratives to show how such texts shaped popular understandings of science in this region. Although the historiography of nineteenth-century Arctic expeditions is vast, Kaalund's study, which takes a transnational approach, is an original and welcome entry to the field. Through her analysis of various British, American, Canadian and Danish travel narratives, she shows the Arctic to be a liminal space, where the veracity and credibility of writers were closely connected to their reputations, the perceived success of the expeditions, and the imperial and national circumstances of the expedition.
Her first chapter focuses on the British searches for the north-west passage, the open polar sea and the magnetic north pole, in the context of John Ross and John Franklin's early expeditions to Antarctica. These were major naval operations, seeking the imperial prestige which would come from these geographical discoveries. But they also involved as much scientific research as possible. In contrast, the Danish expedition of Wilhelm August Graah, organized in conjunction with the Kongelige Grønlandske Handel (Royal Greenland Trading Department), was smaller in scale and had a different overall goal: to find a lost Nordic settlement in Greenland. This too was an imperial project which would justify Denmark's colonization of the region.
The second chapter addresses accounts from non-governmental expeditions in the region – those funded through private patronage, trade companies like the Hudson Bay Company and religious missions. She describes the later expeditions of John Ross. However, Ross's eventual published narrative detracted from his credibility since he clearly intended financial gain from this work. In contrast, Danish missionaries, figures who rarely fit the mental cast of polar explorers, also produced accounts of life in Greenland. While missionaries, a group that could include European women, problematized the traditional image of the heroic and masculine explorer, their narratives helped shape perceptions of Arctic peoples and landscapes. However, like Ross, if missionary narratives were too transparent in their efforts to raise money for their missions, they too were delegitimized. Finally, expeditions funded by the companies, such as the Dease Simpson expedition, funded by the Hudson Bay Company, revealed the priorities of the expedition backers. Despite the paucity of scientific results and personal hardships among the men, it was deemed a success due to comprehensive geographical survey work, reflecting the company's commercial interests.
Chapter 3 focuses on John Franklin's 1845 expedition to find the north-west passage. Rather than covering the well-trodden ground of this expedition specifically, Kaalund focuses instead on three expeditions outfitted to find the lost men, making some observations along the way. The discoveries of the men on these expeditions, including discoveries about the fate of Franklin, were closely tied to the reputations of the leaders. For instance, John Rae's infamous discovery that the crews of the Terror and the Erebus resorted to cannibalism was met with widespread derision, especially because it relied on Inuit testimony, but also because it ran contrary to the image of a British gentleman. This news was better received in Denmark since it did not tarnish a national hero.
Finally, the fourth chapter addresses the evolution of Arctic science toward the end of the nineteenth century. In this chapter, Kaalund recounts the experience of Suersaq, or Hans Hendrick, a veteran of four British and American expeditions who subsequently wrote a memoir of his experiences, providing a rare voice from an indigenous explorer. Her account of the first International Polar Year (IPY) (1882–3) represents a shifting view of what constitutes necessary science in the Arctic. Rather than following the model of heroic expeditions, modelled especially by the British, the IPY parties established twelve polar stations in the Arctic Circle to gather meteorological and other geophysical observations. Topographic mapping was a secondary concern.
Kaalund's book is short. Coming in at 176 pages, she does not spend an especially long time on any specific expedition. While this breadth is a strength, tying together several expeditions that are not usually thus connected, it is also a weakness; expeditions are discussed in minimal terms and require the reader to already be familiar with the history of Arctic exploration. Her focus on travel narratives generally centers the recognizable tropes of heroic white officers and men of science in polar exploration, but welcomely acknowledges the role of indigenous figures in the European accounts. Finally, the book's rich illustrations help the reader immerse themselves in its story.
Overall, this book should be commended for its success in placing the genre of travel narratives directly within debates over the nature of polar science and environments. Additionally, while many have demonstrated the role of travel literature within imperial contexts, Kaalund extends this historiography to the Arctic. I can unabashedly recommend this work to scholars of empire, science, travel and the polar regions.
