Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 January 2010
The role of language and linguistic-philological studies in the nationalist movements of the nineteenth century received much attention. The aim of this article is to focus on the language factor in Zionism and the revival of Hebrew as a spoken language in the Yishuv between 1904 and 1914. Founded in 1904, the Hebrew Language Council was expected to enhance the process of revival and, from the very beginning, an unmistakably nationalist attitude to its subject matter marked the Council's agenda. However, the authority of the Council to make binding decisions on linguistic matters was contested by a number of other Zionist institutions, a development which ruined the prestige and effectiveness of the Council. The controversy resulted less from a turf war or quarrels over scarce resources than a deeper question of which institution represented the “true” Hebraic spirit. The World Zionist Organization's decision to de-align from cultural matters, including the revival of Hebrew, worsened the conditions under which the Council operated. From a comparative perspective, thus, the Hebrew case provides an unusual case of linguistic nationalism, which should be of interest to students of both nationalism and sociolinguistics.
I am indebted to Smadar Barak, former director of the Dr Aharon Mazie Institute in Jerusalem, for making their collection of documents available to me. This article grew out of a conference paper, which I prepared for “imagiNATION: The Cultural Praxis of Zionism” Conference, Tempe, Arizona State University, 5–7 February 2006. I would like to thank Arieh Saposnik and Shai Ginsburg, the organizers of that meeting, as well as Avigdor Levy, Gideon Shimoni and an anonymous reviewer for their valuable comments and suggestions on earlier versions. All remaining errors are mine.
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15 On the history and influence of the Teachers’ Union, see Elboim-Dror, Rahel, Ha-hinukh ha-ivri be-eretz yisra'el, vol. 1 (Jerusalem: Yad Yitzhak Ben Tzvi, 1986), 206–39Google Scholar; Elboim-Dror, Rahel, Ha-hinukh ha-ivri be-eretz yisra'el, vol. 2 (Jerusalem: Yad Yitzhak Ben Tzvi, 1990), 180–96Google Scholar. Hebrew teachers in Ottoman Palestine started to hold meetings as early as 1891 and these continued until 1896. For the minutes of the debates, see Document No. 1351, “Sefer zikhron devarim la-asefat ha-morim be-eretz yisra'el”, in Druyanov, A. (ed.), Ketavim le-toldot hibat tziyon ve-yishuv eretz-yisra'el, vol. 3 (Tel Aviv: Defus ko'operativi ’ahdut, 1932), 963–1012Google Scholar.
16 “Le-toldot va‘ad ha-lashon”, Zikhronot va‘ad ha-lashon, 1, 1912, 4. This short introduction to the first issue of the HLC's proceedings is an invaluable source in tracing the early history of the revival in the Yishuv. It is not entirely reliable, though, since the authors of this text, probably Eliezer Ben-Yehuda and David Yellin, tried to portray the revival as a continuous, unbroken process. That is why they identify the Safah Berurah with the Language Council and push the date of the foundation of the HLC back to 1889, although the two were different institutions both nominally and in terms of their structure.
17 Zikhronot ha-devarim la-asefah ha-kelalit ha-shenit la-agudat ha-morim be-eretz yisra'el (be-yemei 22-25 elul tarsa”d, be-moshavat gedera be-yehudah) (Jerusalem: Defus Rav Avraham Moshe Luncz, 1905), 6–7 and 36–51; Takanot agudat ha-morim be-eretz yisra'el hutz‘u me'et merkaz ha-morim ve-tuknu ve-ushru ba-asefat ha-morim ha-kelalit ha-shenit be-elul tarsa”d (Jerusalem: Defus Avraham Moshe Luncz, 1905).
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20 “Le-toldot va‘ad ha-lashon”, 11. Members of the Va‘ad at that initial stage were Eliezer Ben Yehuda, Hayim Zuta, David Yellin, Dr Aharon Mazie, Yosef Meyuhas and E. Sapir. Israel Halevi Teller and Avraham Moshe Luncz joined in in 1907. By 1914 there were about twelve members.
21 Ibid., 11–12.
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25 “And here dear colleagues, I am proud to announce before you: I have found, I have found! I have found tens, hundreds of Hebrew roots! And I will not conceal from you the place where I found those treasures. Indeed I found them – in Arabic dictionaries.” Quoted in Ben-Yehuda, Eliezer, “Le-male ha-hoser be-leshonenu”, in Zikhronot va‘ad ha-lashon ha-ivrit 4, 1913–14, 8Google Scholar.
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30 Ibid.
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34 When, in 1903, the British government contacted the chairman of the World Zionist Organization, Theodor Herzl, and offered Uganda as a destination for immigration and a future homeland, a rift developed within the Zionist movement, dividing it into two camps: the Territorialists and Zionists of Zion. While the former agreed to accept the British plan, the latter opposed it bitterly, eliminating the possibility of settling for anything less than Ottoman Palestine. Walter Laqueur, A History of Zionism (New York: MJF Books, n.d.), 120–30; Halpern, Ben and Reinharz, Jehuda, Zionism and the Creation of a New Society (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 141–2Google Scholar. Eliezer Ben-Yehuda emerged as one of the most prominent Territorialists, shocking many of his friends and supporters in the Yishuv. A synopsis of his views on the Uganda Affair, as the problem came to be known, can be found in Ben-Yehuda, Eliezer, Ha-medinah ha-yehudit: Ma'amarim shonim al devar hatza‘at mizrah-afrikah (Warsaw: I. Edelstein & Co., 1904)Google Scholar.
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36 Y. H. Brenner, “Va‘ad ha-lashon mefabrek milim”, in Leket te‘udot, 40–1. Also see Ben-Yehuda's reply, “Keitzad bohrim le-va‘ad ha-lashon”, in Leket te‘udot, 43–5. Both articles originally appeared in 1914.
37 The language committee of the Ivriyah consisted of Dr Bograshov, Dr Mossinsohn, Dr Sheinkin, a certain Mr H. Harari, and Mordekhai Ben Hillel Hakohen. Central Committee of the Teachers’ Union, Jaffa, to the HLC, Jerusalem, 17 February 1908, Mazie Archive, Document No. 8.
38 Kohelet's full name was Hevrah le-hotza'at sifrei limud u-kvi‘ah le-tzorhei batei ha-sefer be-eretz yisra'el. It was founded by the Teachers’ Union in order to collect funds specifically for the purpose of preparing and publishing textbooks for the Hebrew schools in the Yishuv. When the Union decided to utilize it as a proxy to the HLC, the Kohelet formed a sub-committee, Ve‘idah le-harhavat ha-safah, that included A. Sapir, M. Krishavsky, A. Gutman, Dr Matman, A. Z. Rabinowitz and H. Harari, mostly teachers in the Jaffa area. See A. Sapir, Jaffa, to the HLC, Jerusalem, 16 November 1910, Mazie Archive, Document No. 14.
39 The Kohelet proposed a discussion forum: teachers and other interested amateurs would send in their suggestions and questions to the Kohelet, where they would be debated and then referred to the HLC. The HLC's decisions on those issues would then be returned to all concerned via the Kohelet (ibid). See also Kohelet's circular letter, n.d., Mazie Archive, Document No. 15.
40 A. Sapir, Jaffa, to the HLC, Jerusalem, 9 December 1910, Mazie Archive, Document No. 20.
41 The HLC's reply is missing, but much of its contents were summarized in the Kohelet's following letter. See A. Sapir, Jaffa, to the HLC, 16 December 1910, Mazie Archive, Document No. 21.
42 Ahad Haam (1856–1927) was the ideologue of the Russian Zionists and father of cultural Zionism, a movement that aimed at establishing a Jewish cultural centre in Ottoman Palestine for the rejuvenation of Jewish identity in the Diaspora. For a detailed account of his huge impact on Zionist politics, which should be compared to Theodor Herzl's in effect, see Zipperstein, Steven J., Elusive Prophet: Ahad Ha'am and the Origins of Zionism (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993)Google Scholar, and Kornberg, Jacques (ed.), At the Crossroads: Essays on Ahad Ha-am (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983)Google Scholar.
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44 The HLC, Jerusalem, to the Teachers’ Union, Jaffa, 3 July 1912, Mazie Archive, Document No. 63.
45 Dr. Y. Luria, Jaffa, to the HLC, Jerusalem, 29 December 1913, Mazie Archive, Document No. 114.
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68 The situation was completely the reverse, for example, in the Turkish case, where conservatives of all stripes clung to an unreformed Ottoman Turkish, while Kemalist reformers continued to speak and write a purified Turkish.