Hostname: page-component-7b9c58cd5d-nzzs5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-03-14T06:28:33.762Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Influence of Ethical Leadership and Regulatory Focus on Employee Outcomes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 January 2015

Mitchell J. Neubert ,
Cindy Wu  and
James A. Roberts
Mitchell J. Neubert
Affiliation:
Baylor University
Cindy Wu
Affiliation:
Baylor University
James A. Roberts
Affiliation:
Baylor University
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Regulatory focus theory is proposed as offering an explanation for the influence of ethical leadership on organizational citizenship behaviors and employee commitments. The prevention focus mindset of an employee is argued to be the mechanism by which an ethical leader influences extra-role compliance behavior as well as normative commitment, whereas the promotion focus mindset of an employee is argued to be the mechanism by which an ethical leader influences extra-role voice behavior as well as affective commitment. Moreover, leader-member exchange is proposed as a moderator of the relationship of ethical leadership to regulatory focus mindsets and employee behavior and commitments. Using the data collected in two waves from 250 working adults, we tested the proposed relationships with moderated mediation bootstrap procedures. The findings generally support the hypothesized relationships and point toward important implications for ethical leadership in work settings.

Keywords

ethical leadershipregulatory focusLMXorganizational commitmentorganizational citizenship behavior
Type
Articles
Information
Business Ethics Quarterly , Volume 23 , Issue 2 , April 2013 , pp. 269 - 296
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Business Ethics 2013

References

REFERENCES

Allen, N.J., & Meyer, J.P. 1990. The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63: 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1990.tb00506.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arvey, R.D., & Jones, A.P. 1985. The use of discipline in organizational settings: A framework for future research. Research in Organizational Behavior, 67: 367–408.Google Scholar
Avolio, B.J., & Bass, B.M. 1988. Transformational leadership, charisma, and beyond. In Hunt, J.G., Baliga, B.R., Dachler, H.P., & Schriesheim, C.A. (Eds.), Emerging leadership vistas: 29–49. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. 1986. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. 1991. Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50: 248–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90022-LCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bass, B.M., & Steidlmeier, P. 1999. Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior. The Leadership Quarterly, 10: 181–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1048-9843(99)00016-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bollen, K.A., & Stine, R. 1990. Direct and indirect effects: Classical and bootstrap estimates of variability. Sociological Methodology, 20: 115–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/271084CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borman, W.C., & Motowidlo, S.J. 1993. Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance. In Schmitt, N., & Borman, W.C. (Eds.), Personnel selection in organizations: 71–98. LSan Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Brockner, J., & Higgins, E.T. 2001. Regulatory focus theory: Implications for the study of emotions at work. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 86(1): 35–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/obhd.2001.2972CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, M.E., & Mitchell, M.S. 2010. Ethical and unethical leadership: Exploring new avenues for future research. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20(4): 583–616. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq201020439CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, M.E., & Treviño, L.K. 2006. Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. The Leadership Quarterly, 17: 595–616. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, M.E., Treviño, L.K., & Harrison, D.A. 2005. Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97: 117–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016Zj.obhdp.2005.03.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cameron, K. 2006. Good or not bad: Standards and ethics in managing change. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 5(3): 317–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/AMLE.2006.22697020CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caza, A., Barker, B.A., & Cameron, K.S. 2004. Ethics and ethos: The buffering and amplifying effects of ethical behavior and virtuousness. Journal of Business Ethics, 52: 169–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:BUSI.0000035909.05560.0eCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choi, J.M. 2007. Change-oriented organizational citizenship behavior: Effects of work environment characteristics and intervening psychological processes. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28: 467–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.433/CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ciulla, J.B. 1995. Leadership ethics: Mapping the territory. Business Ethics Quarterly, 5: 5–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, A. 2003. Multiple commitments in the workplace: An integrative approach Mah-wah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper-Hakim, A., & Viswesvaran, C. 2005. The construct of work commitment: Testing an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 131(2): 241–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.13L2.241CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dansereau, F., Graen, G.B., & Haga, W. 1975. A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership in formal organizations. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13: 46–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(75)90005-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Hoogh, A.H.B., & Den Hartog, D.N. 2008. Ethical and despotic leadership, relationships with leader’s social responsibility, top management team effectiveness and subordinates’ optimism: A multi-method study. The Leadership Quarterly, 19: 297–311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.03.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Detert, J., Treviño, L.K., Burris, E., & Andiappan, M. 2007. Managerial models of influence and counterproductivity in organizations: A longitudinal business unit-level investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92: 993–1005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.993CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dierdorff, E.C., & Morgenson, F.P. 2007. Consensus in work role requirements: The influence of discrete occupational context on role expectations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(5): 1228–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.5.1228CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edwards, J.R., & Lambert, L.S. 2007. Methods for integrating moderation and mediation: A general analytical framework using moderated path analysis. Psychological Methods, 12(1): 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.12.1.1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D.F. 1981. Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18: 39–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3151312CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, R.S., & Förster, J. 2001. The effects of promotion and prevention cues on creativity. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 81(6): 1001–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.8L6.1001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gao, L., Janssen, O., & Shi, K. 2011. Leader trust and employee voice: The moderating role of empowering leader behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(4): 787–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.05.015CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerstner, C.R., & Day, D.V. 1997. Meta-analytic review of leader-member exchange theory: Correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82: 827–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.82.6.827CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghoshal, S. 2005. Bad management theories are destroying good management practices. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 4: 79–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/AMLE.2005.16132558CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giampetro-Meyer, A., Brown, T., Browne, M.N., & Kubasek, N. 1998. Do we really want more leaders in business? Journal of Business EthicsJournal of Business EthicsJournal of Business EthicsJournal of Business Ethics, 17: 1727–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1006092107644Google Scholar
Graen, G.B., & Scandura, T.A. 1987. Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. Research in Organizational Behavior, 9: 175–208.Google Scholar
Graen, G.B., & Uhl-Bien, M. 1995. Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader–member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 25: 219–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(95)90036-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higgins, E.T. 1997. Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52(12): 1280–1300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.12.1280CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higgins, E.T. 1998. Promotion and prevention regulatory focus as a motivational principle. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 30: 1–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60381-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higgins, E.T. 2000. Making a good decision: Value from fit. American Psychologist, 55: 1217–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.11.1217CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higgins, E.T., Roney, C.J.R., Crowe, E., & Hymes, C. 1994. Ideal versus ought predilections for approach and avoidance distinct self-regulatory systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(2): 276–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.66.2.276CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higgins, E.T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R.S. 1997. Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3): 515–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.723.515CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higgins, E.T., & Silberman, I. 1998. Development of regulatory focus: Promotion and prevention as ways of living. In Heckhausen, J., & Dweck, C.S. (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulation across the lifespan. New York: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527869.005Google Scholar
Higgins, E.T., & Tykocinski, O. 1992. Self-discrepancies and biographical memory: Personality and cognition at the level of psychological situation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(5): 527–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167292185002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hooper, D.T., & Martin, R. 2008. Beyond personal leader-member exchange (LMX) quality: The effects of perceived LMX variability on employee reactions. The Leadership Quarterly, 19: 20–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.12.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ilies, R., Nahrgang, J.D., & Morgeson, F.P. 2007. Journal of Applied Psychology. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92: 269–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.L269CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, L., James, L., & Ashe, D. 1990. The meaning of organizations: The role of cognition and values. In Schneider, B. (Eds.), Organizational climate and culture:40–84). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Johnson, R.E., Chang, C., & Yang, L. 2010. Commitment and motivation at work: The relevance of employee identity and regulatory focus. Academy of Management Review, 35(2): 226–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2010.48463332Google Scholar
Judge, T.A., Ilies, R., & Scott, B.A. 2006. Work-family conflict and emotions: Effects at work and at home. Personnel Psychology, 59(4): 779–814. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00054.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalshoven, K., Den Hartog, D.N., De Hoogh, A.H.B. 2011. Ethical leadership at work questionnaire (ELW): Development and validation of a multidimensional measure. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(1): 51–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.12.007CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kark, R., & Van Dijk, D. 2007. Motivation to lead, motivation to follow: The role of the self regulatory focus in leadership processes. Academy of Management Review, 32: 500–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2007.24351846CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenny, D.A., Kashy, D.A., & Bolger, N. 1998. Data analysis in social psychology. In Gilbert, D.T., Fiske, S.T., & Lindzey, G. (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology, 4th ed.:233–65). Boston: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Kerr, S., & Jermier, J.M. 1978. Substitutes for leadership: their meaning and measurement. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 22: 375–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(78)90023-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, H.J., Molloy, J.C., & Cooper, J.T. 2009. Conceptual foundations: Construct definitions and theoretical representations of workplace commitments. In Klein, H.J., Becker, T.E., & Meyer, J.P. (Eds.), Commitment in organizations: Accumulated wisdom and new directions. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Lanaj, K., Chang, C., & Johnson, R.E. 2012. Regulatory focus and work-related outcomes: A review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(5): 998–1034. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0027723CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LePine, J.A., & Van Dyne, L. 2001. Voice and cooperative behavior as contrasting forms of contextual performance: Evidence of differential relationships with Big Five personality characteristics and cognitive ability. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(2): 326–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.2.326CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liberman, N., Idson, L.C., Camacho, C.J., & Higgins, E.T. 1999. Promotion and prevention choices between stability and change. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 77(6): 1135–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1135CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marinova, S., Moon, H., & Van Dyne, L. 2010. Are all good soldier behaviors the same? Supporting multidimensionality of organizational citizenship behaviors based on rewards and roles. Human Relations, 60(10): 1463–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0018726709359432CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, D.M., Aquino, K., Greenbaum, R.L., & Kuenzi, M. 2012. Who displays ethical leadership, and why does it matter? An examination of antecedents and consequences of ethical leadership. Academy of Management Journal, 55(1): 151–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amj.2008.0276CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, D.M., Kuenzi, M., Greenbaum, R., Bardes, M., & Salvador, R. 2009. How low does ethical leadership flow? Test of a trickle-down model. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108: 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.04.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, J.P. 2009. Commitment in a changing world of work. In Klein, H.J., Becker, T.E., & Meyer, J.P. (Eds.), Commitment in organizations: Accumulated wisdom and new directions. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Meyer, J.P., & Allen, R. 1991. A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 1: 61–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/1053-4822(91)90011-ZCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, J.P., & Allen, R. 1997. Commitment in the workplace: Theory, research, and application Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, J.P., Becker, T.E., & Vandeberghe, C. 2004. Employee commitment and motivation: A conceptual analysis and integrative model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(6): 991–1007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.6.991CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrison, E.W. 2011. Employee voice behavior: Integration and directions for future research. The Academy of Management Annals, 5(1): 373–412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19416520.2011.574506CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neubert, M.J., Carlson, D.S., Kacmar, K.M., Roberts, J.A. & Chonko, L.B. 2009. The virtuous influence of ethical leadership behavior: Evidence from the field. Journal of Business Ethics, 90: 157–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0037-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neubert, M.J., Kacmar, K.M., Carlson, D.S., Chonko, L.B. & Roberts, J.A. 2008. Regulatory focus as a mediator of the influence of initiating structure and servant leadership on employee behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(6): 1220–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0012695CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Organ, D.W., & Konovsky, M. 1989. Cognitive versus affective determinants of organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 7: 157–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.74.L157CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piccolo, R.F., & Colquitt, J.A. 2006. Transformational leadership and job behaviors: The mediating role of core job characteristics. Academy of Management Journal, 49: 327–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2006.20786079CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piccolo, R.F., Greenbaum, R., Hartog, D.N., & Folger, R. 2010. The relationship between ethical leadership and core job characteristics. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31: 259–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.627CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Lee, Y., & Podsakoff, N.P. 2003. Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88: 879–903. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Paine, J.B., & Bachrach, D.G. 2000. Organizational citizenship behaviors: A critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future research. Journal of Management, 26(3): 513–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014920630002600307CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, R.S., Dierdorff, E.C., & Brown, M.E. 2010. Do ethical leaders get ahead? Exploring ethical leadership and promotability. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20(2): 215–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq201020216CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salancik, G. 1977. Commitment is too easy! Organizational Dynamics, 6: 62–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(77)90035-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scandura, T.A., Graen, G.B., & Novak, M.A. 1986. When managers decide not to decide autocratically: Leader-member exchange and decision influence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71: 250–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.7L4.579CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scholer, A.A., & Higgins, E.T. 2010. Regulatory focus in a demanding world. In Hoyle, R.H. (Eds.), Handbook of personality and self-regulation: 291–291. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, C.A., Organ, D.W., & Near, J.P. 1983. Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68: 653–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.68A653CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sobel, M.E. 1982. Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In Leinhardt, S. (Eds.), Sociological methodology 1982: 290–312. Washington, D.C.: American Sociological Association.Google Scholar
Sparrowe, R.T., Soetjipto, B.W., & Kraimer, M.L. 2006. Do leaders’ influence tactics relate to members’ helping behavior? It depends on the quality of the relationship. Academy of Management Journal, 49(6): 1194–1208. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2006.23478645CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tenbrunsel, A.E., Smith-Crowe, K., & Umphress, E. 2003. Building houses on rocks: The role of the ethical infrastructure on organizations. Social Justice Research, 16: 285–307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1025992813613CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, J.A., & Bunderson, J.S. 2003. Violations of principle: Ideological currency in the psychological contract. Academy of Management Review, 28: 571–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treviño, L.K. 1992. The social effects of punishments in organizations: A justice perspective. Academy of Management Review, 17: 647–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treviño, L.K., Brown, M., & Hartmann, L.P. 2003. A qualitative investigation of perceived executive leadership in organizations: Perceptions from inside and outside the executive suite. Human Relations, 55: 5–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0018726703056001448CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treviño, L.K., Hartman, L.P., & Brown, M. 2000. Moral person and moral manager: How executives develop a reputation for ethical leadership. California Management Review, 42(4): 128–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/41166057CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Dyne, L., & LePine, J.A. 1998. Helping and voice extra-role behaviors: Evidence of construct and predictive validity. Academy of Management Journal, 41(1): 108–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/256902CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallace, C., and Chen, G. 2006. A multilevel integration of personality, climate, self-regulation, and performance. Personnel Psychology, 59(3): 529–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00046.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walumbwa, F.O., Avolio, B.J., Gardner, W.L., Wernsing, T.S., & Peterson, S.J. 2008. Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based measure. Journal of Management, 34: 89–126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0149206307308913CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walumbwa, F.O., Mayer, D.M., Wang, P., Wang, H., Workman, K., & Christensen, A.L. 2011. Linking ethical leadership to employee performance: The roles of leader-member exchange, self-efficacy, and organizational identification. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 115: 204–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0149206307308913CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walumbwa, F.O., & Schaubroeck, J. 2009. Leader personality traits and employee voice behavior: Mediating roles of ethical leadership and work group psychological safety. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94: 1275–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0015848CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wayne, S.J., Coyle-Shapiro, J.M., Eisenberger, R., Liden, R.C., Rousseau, D.M., & Shore, L.M. 2009. Social Influences. In Klein, H.J., Becker, T.E., & Meyer, J.P. (Eds.), Commitment in organizations: Accumulated wisdom and new directions. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Weaver, G.R., Treviño, L.K., & Cochran, P.L. 1999. Corporate ethics programs as control systems: Influences of executive commitment and environmental factors. Academy of Management Journal, 42: 41–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/256873CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, L.J., & Anderson, S.E. 1991. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors of organizational citizenship and in-role behaviors. Journal of Management, 17: 601–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014920639101700305CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, L.J., Cote, J.A., & Buckley, M.R. 1989. Lack of method variance in self-reported affect and perceptions of work: Reality or artifact? Journal of Applied Psychology, 74: 462–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.74.3.462CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiltermuth, S.S., Monin, B., & Chow, R.M. 2010. The orthogonality of praise and condemnation in moral judgment. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1(4): 302–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1948550610363162CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, R., & Bandura, A. 1989. Social cognitive theory of organizational management. Academy of Management Review, 14: 361–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, C., McMullen, J., Neubert, M.J. & Yi, X. 2008. The influence of leader regulatory focus on employee creativity. Journal of Business Venturing, 23: 587–602. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2007.09.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar