Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T01:41:20.116Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Cultural Studies Encounters Legal Pluralism: Certain Objects of Order, Law and Culture

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 July 2014

Ian Duncanson
Affiliation:
Law and Legal Studies, LaTrobe University, Australia

Abstract

Cultural studies provides an interesting conceptual perspective on legal pluralism for a number of reasons. Rather than asking ontological questions about parallel legal systems, cultural studies frameworks encourage questions about the meanings which might be generated for “law” at the plural sites of intersection of regulatory phenomena: legal meanings must defer to questions about how a subject is positioned, subjected. Narratives of culture, broadly conceived, also allow us to notice the diverse, fluid and often contradictory patterns of regulation and discipline created when there are politically powerful beliefs in the singularity of order and certainty. The efforts in Anglophone cultures to create an “English” heritage safe from various threatening others is echoed in jurisprudential specifications of the criteria of legality.

Résumé

L'abord du pluralisme juridique sous l'angle de l'étude des diversités culturelles offre, du point de vue conceptuel, un certain intérêt. Contrairement à l'approche ontologique des systèmes parallèles de droit, la méthodologie des études sur la culture favorise l'interrogation sur le sens qu'on peut donner à la «loi» au carrefour des divers phénomènes de normalisation: la recherche du sens du droit doit renvoyer à la situation du sujet et son état de sujet. L'étude de cas nous permet de concevoir la culture, dans son acception la plus large, de mettre en évidence la diversité, la subtilité et la contradiction qui caractérisent les modes normatifs et disciplinaires établis sur la base de crédos politiques bien ancrés en l'originalité de l'ordre et de la certitude. Les efforts déployés par les groupes culturels anglo-saxons en vue de protéger l'héritage «anglais» contre les assauts divers «autres» trouvent écho dans la définition de légalité donnée par la jurisprudence.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Canadian Law and Society Association 1997

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. de Sousa Santos, B., Toward a New Commonsense: Law, Science and Politics in the Paradigmatic Transition (New York: Routledge, 1995) at 114ffGoogle Scholar.

2. Anthropology does not necessarily have these qualities. See especially Geertz, C., After the Fact (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996) c. 5Google Scholar. I have suggested elsewhere that law could usefully be taught as an anthropology of lawyers' cultures: Duncanson, I., “The Ends of Legal Studies” (1997) 3 Web Journal of Current Legal Issues, http://webjcli.ncl.ac.ukGoogle Scholar.

3. E.G. Mabo v. State of Queensland (1992), 107 A.L.R. 1; Wik Peoples v. State of Queensland (1996), 147 A.L.R. 129. But see Behrendt, L., Aboriginal Dispute Resolution (Sydney: Federation Press, 1995) c. 7Google Scholar; Mead, G., A Royal Omission (Halifax: SA, 1995)Google Scholar.

4. Tamanaha, B., “The Folly of the ‘Social Scientific’ Concept of Legal Pluralism” (1993) 20:2Journal of Law and Society 192CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5. See the remarks of Fitzpatrick, Peter in Fitzpatrick, P., “The Impossibility of Popular Justice” (1992) 1:2Social and Legal Studies 199CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Duncanson, I., “Close Your Eyes and Think of England: Stories About Law and Constitutional Change in Australia” (1996) 3:2Canberra L. Rev. 123Google Scholar.

6. The phrase is from Caney, D., The Cultural Turn: Scene-Setting Essays on Contemporary Cultural History (New York: Routledge, 1994)Google Scholar.

7. Grossberg, L., Nelson, C. & Triecher, P., eds., Cultural Studies (New York: Routledge, 1992) 1 at 4Google Scholar.

8. See e.g. Hall, S., ed., Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices (London: Sage, 1997)Google Scholar.

9. Kantorowicz, E., The King's Two Bodies: A Study in Medieval Political Theology (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957)Google Scholar. The principle is summed up in the cliché “the king is dead, long live the king.”

10. Leavis, F. R., “Mutually Necessary” in Singh, G., ed., The Critic as Anti-Philosopher (London: Chatto & Windus, 1982) 186Google Scholar.

11. Hart, H. L. A., The Concept of Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961) c. 1Google Scholar.

12. Dworkin, R., Law's Empire (London: Collins, 1986) at 14Google Scholar.

13. Hobsbawm, See E., “From Social History to the History of Society” in Flinn, M. & Smout, T., eds., Essays in Social History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974) 1Google Scholar; Hoggart, R., The Uses of Literacy: Aspects of Working Class Life with Special Reference to Publications and Entertainments (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1958)Google Scholar; Williams, R., Culture and Society, 1780-1950 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963)Google Scholar.

14. Bloom, A., The Closing of the American Mind (New York: Touchstone, 1987) at 36, 39Google Scholar. See Burke, E., quoted in Windon, G., “Burke's Law” in Turner, J. & Williams, P., eds., The Happy Couple: Law and Literature (Sydney: Federation Press, 1994) 25 at 28Google Scholar: “[O]ur [i.e. English] political system is placed in a just correspondence and symmetry with the order of the world and with the mode of existence decreed to a permanent body composed of transitory parts.”

15. Buchanan, Patrick in 1992, quoted in Levine, L., The Opening of the American Mind (New York: Beacon, 1996) at 4Google Scholar.

16. Quoted in Carey, A., Taking the Risk Out of Democracy: Propaganda in the US and Australia, ed. by Lohrey, A. (Sydney, UNSW Press, 1995) at 91Google Scholar. See generally c. 7. See also Crocket, R., Thinking the Unthinkable: Think Tanks and the Economic Counter-revolution, 1931-1983 (London: Fontana, 1995)Google Scholar.

17. Grbich, J., “Feminist Jurisprudence as Women's Studies in Law” in Arnaud, A.-J. & Kingdom, E., eds., Women's Rights and the Rights of Man (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1990) 75 at 85Google Scholar.

18. Sharpe, J., Allegories of Empire: The Figure of the Woman in the Colonial Text (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993) c. 3Google Scholar.

19. Bloom, H., The Western Canon (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1994) at 527Google Scholar.

20. Duncanson, supra note 2.

21. See Woodmansee, M. & Jaszi, P., eds., The Construction of Authorship: Textual Appropriation in Law and Literature (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Burke, S., ed., Authorship (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1995)Google Scholar.

22. “[T]he discourse form of horror fiction [especially that of nineteenth-century short fiction] is, in essence, legalistic …” C. Higgins, “Tales of Gothic: Queensland's ‘Vampire’ Murder” in Turner & Williams, eds., supra note 14, 167 at 167.

23. Ward, I., Law and Literature: Possibilities and Perspectives (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brooks, P. & Gewirtz, P., eds., Law's Stories: Narrative and Rhetoric in the Law (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996)Google Scholar.

24. Berndt, C. & Berndt, R., The World of the First Australians: Aboriginal Traditional Life, Past and Present (Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press, 1988) c. 10Google Scholar.

25. See Fuss, D., “Fashion and the Homospectatorial Look” in Benstock, S. & Ferris, S., eds.. On Fashion (New Brunswick, NJ: Ruttgers University Press, 1994) 211Google Scholar.

26. The field of manliness, for example, is legislated and adjudicated from a variety of sites. See the writing examined in Lane, C., The Ruling Passion: British Colonial Allegory and the Paradox of Homosexual Desire (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995)Google Scholar; Spurr, D., The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonialism in Journalism, Travel Writing and Imperial Administration (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Richards, J., Happiest Days: The Public School on English Fiction (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993)Google Scholar; Smart, C., “Law, Feminism and Sexuality: From Essence to Ethics?” (1994) 9:1C.J.L.S. 15CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27. Philology was imported into English in order to preserve the discipline from the “softness” its high enrollment of women threatened. Women who could “pass exams filled with publication dates, lists of authors, conjugations of Anglo-Saxon verbs … were clearly above the stereotype” and the subject was safe. McMurtry, J., English Language, English Literature: The Creation of an Academic Discipline (London: Mansell, 1985) at 13Google Scholar.

28. See Bondanella, P., The Eternal City: Roman Images in the Modern World (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987)Google Scholar.

29. Bernal, M., Black Athena: The Afro-Asiatic Roots of Classical Civilisation, vol. 1 (London: Vintage, 1991)Google Scholar.

30. Larson, M., The Rise of Professionalism: A Sociological Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Abel-Smith, B. & Stevens, R., Lawyers and the Courts: A Sociological Study of the English Legal System, 1750-1965 (London: Heinemann, 1967)Google Scholar.

31. Letter from Sir Charles Trevelyan to Captain O'Brien (1854), quoted in Cowan, P., “The Origins of an Administrative Elite” (1987) 162 New Left Rev. 4 at 18Google Scholar.

32. Doyle, B., English and Englishness (London: Routledge, 1989) at 20 [emphasis added]Google Scholar.

33. Colls, R. & Dodd, P., eds., Englislmess: Politics and Culture (London: Croom Helm, 1987)Google Scholar.

34. Laqueur, T., “Credit, Novels, Imagination” in Foster, S. Leigh, ed., Choreographing History (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1995) 119Google Scholar.

35. Rorty, R., Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986) 163 at 163Google Scholar.

36. Toulmin, S., Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity (New York: Free Press, 1990) at 42Google Scholar.

37. Ibid. at 104.

38. Rorty, supra note 35.

39. Weber, M., “Science as a Vocation” in Gerth, H. H. & Mills, C. Wright, eds., From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (London: RKP, 1948) 129 at 151 [emphasis added]Google Scholar.

40. Young, R., White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (London: Routledge, 1990) at 8Google Scholar.

41. Horkheimer, M., “Reason Against Itself: Some Remarks on Enlightenment” in Schmidt, J., ed., What Is Enlightenment? Eighteenth Century Answers and Twentieth Century Questions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) 359 at 364Google Scholar.

42. The editors of a recent collection note the resemblance: Appleby, J. et al. , eds., Knowledge and Postmodernism in Historical Perspective (New York: Routledge, 1996)Google Scholar.

43. Hume, D., A Treatise of Human Nature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978) at 253Google Scholar.

44. Ibid. at 196.

45. Ibid. Book 1, Part 3, Sect. 12.

46. Ibid. at 649.

47. Damrosch, L., Fictions of Reality in the Age of Hume and Johnson (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989) at 27Google Scholar.

48. Hume, D., An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1893) at 162Google Scholar.

49. Beier, A., A Progress of Sentiments: Reflections on Hume's Treatise (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991) at 282Google Scholar.

50. Hume, D., An Inquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, ed. by Steinberg, E. (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1983) at 97Google Scholar.

51. Hume, D., “Of the Independency of Parliament” in Miller, E., ed., Essays: Moral, Political and Literary (Indianapolis: Liberty Classics, 1985) 42Google Scholar.

52. Damrosch, supra note 47 at 179.

53. Snell, K., Annals of the Labouring Poor: Social Change and Agrarian England, 1660-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Linebaugh, P., The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century (London: Allen Lane, 1991)Google Scholar.

54. Rude, G., Wilkes and Liberty: A Social Study of 1763-1774 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962)Google Scholar.

55. Thompson, E. P., The Making of the English Working Class (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968)Google Scholar.

56. See Paine, T., Common Sense (Indianapolis: Bobbs Merrill, 1953)Google Scholar; Paine, T., The Rights of Man: Being an Answer to Mr. Burke's Attack on the French Revolution (New York: Dent, [nd])Google Scholar. Bentham famously rejected the utility of a bill of rights, but reorganised the notions of legal and political subjectivity along Enlightenment lines.

57. Hobsbawm, E., Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914-1991 (London: Abacus, 1995) at 16Google Scholar.

58. Marx, K. & Engels, F., The Communist Manifesto (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967) at 8283Google Scholar.

59. Porter, R., English Society in the Eighteenth Century, rev. ed. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990) at 115Google Scholar.

60. Freeman, M., Edmund Burke and the Critique of Political Radicalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980) at 69Google Scholar. The logical conclusion is provided by Malthus: “A man who is born into a world already possessed, if he cannot get subsistence from his parents on whom he has a just demand, and if society do[es] not want his labor, has no claim of right to the smallest portion of food and in fact has no business to be where he is. At nature's mighty feast there is no vacant cover for him.” T. R. Malthus, Essay on the Principle of Population, quoted in Winch, D., Riches and Poverty: An Intellectual History of Political Economy in Britain, 1750-1834 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996) at 221Google Scholar.

61. E. Burke, Letters of a Regicide Peace, quoted in Winch, ibid. at 198.

62. Burke, E., Reflections on the Revolution in France, O'Brien, C. C., ed. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968) at 191Google Scholar.

63. Ibid. at 169, 190.

64. Burke, E. quoted in Eagleton, T., The Ideology of the Aesthetic (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990) at 43Google Scholar.

65. Burke, supra note 62 at 194.

66. Windon, supra note 14 at 33.

67. Porter, supra note 59 at 351.

68. Coleridge, S. T., On the Principles of Political Knowledge, quoted in Muirhead, J., Coleridge As Philosopher (London: RKP, 1930) at 169Google Scholar.

69. Coleridge, S. T., quoted in Ashe, T., Table Talk and Omniana of Samuel Taylor Coleridge (London: Bell, 1888) at 318Google Scholar.

70. See Muirhead, supra note 68; Coleman, D., Coleridge and “The Friend”, 1809-1810 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988)Google Scholar; Morrow, J., ed., Coleridge's Writings on Politics and Society (London: Macmillan, 1990) [hereinafter Coleridge's Writings]Google Scholar; Morrow, J., Coleridge's Political Thought: Property, Morality and the Limits of Traditional Discourse (London: Macmillan, 1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar [hereinafter Property, Morality]; Coleridge, S. T., Biographia Literaria (London: Dent, 1906)Google Scholar; Ashe, ibid.

71. Ideas in this Coleridgean sense are derived from the ultimate ends to which every becoming, properly discerned by the understanding, tends. The genius of Shakespeare is to embody this process in his work, like nature: “The organic form … is innate; it shapes, as it develops itself from within; and the fullness of its development is one and the same with the perfection of its outward form. Such as the life is, such is the form. Nature, the prime genial artist, inexhaustible in diverse powers, is equally inexhaustible in forms; each exterior is the physiognomy of the being within its true image reflected and thrown out.” “Shakespeare's Judgement Equal to His Genius” from Coleridge, S. T., Literary Remains II, quoted in Mackail, J., ed., Coleridge's Literary Criticism (London: Humphrey Ward, 1908) at 186Google Scholar. See also Willey, B., Samuel Taylor Coleridge (New York: Norton, 1973) c. 17Google Scholar.

72. “Go, ask the overseer and question the parish doctor whether the workman's health and temperance … have found their level again.” S. T. Coleridge, “A Lay Sermon” in Morrow, supra note 70 at 136–37 [hereinafter “A Lay Sermon”].

73. Fernand Braudel, for example, estimates that late 18th-century British governments raised two and a half times the rate of tax from their subjects and focused it far more precisely on commercially related matters. A mere three years after the loss of much of North America, Britain was in control of the European world's commerce despite France alone having three times the population and two and a half times the output. Braudel, F., Civilisation and Capitalism III: The Perspective of the World (London: Collins, 1984) at 381–82Google Scholar; Braudel, F., Civilisation and Capitalism II: The Wheels of Commerce (London: Collins, 1982) at 527ffGoogle Scholar.

74. “A Lay Sermon” in Coleridge's Writings, supra note 70 at 142. If this seems absurd, equally to Macaulay, Mill and to their late 20th-century epigones, at least we have had “municipal socialism,” the New Deal and Keynes in the interim.

75. S. T. Coleridge, “The Idea of the Constitution: On the Constitution of the Church and the State, According to the Idea of Each” in Coleridge's Writings, ibid. 152 at 180.

76. Eagleton, T., The Significance of Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990) at 29Google Scholar.

77. Minute from Macaulay (31 July 1837). His original Minute to the Council of India was dated 2 February 1835. Quoted in Clive, J., Macaulay: The Shaping of the Historian (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987) at 404Google Scholar.

78. Letter of T. B. Macaulay to Tytler (28 January 1835) in Clive, ibid. at 369.

79. Letter of T. B. Macaulay to Woodrow (6 May 1835) in Clive, ibid. at 403.

80. Colaiaco, J., James Fitzjames Stephen and the Crisis of Victorian Thought (London: Macmillan, 1983) at 100CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

81. Clive, supra note 77 at 473.

82. Ibid. at 435.

83. Macaulay, T. B., Southey (1830) quoted in Macaulay: Historical and Literary Essays (London: Ward & Lock, [nd]) 137 at 148Google Scholar.

84. Macaulay, T. B., “Speech on Education, House of Commons” (18 April 1847) in The Miscellaneous Writings and Speeches of Lord Macaulay (London: Longmans & Green, 1889) 734Google Scholar.

85. Valor and intelligence, naturally, but as he insists in his essay on Clive, it is uprightness and sincerity, complete trustworthiness and reliability in commerce, diplomacy and military matters, which distinguish and explain the achievements of the English in India and elsewhere. “A hostile monarch may promise a mountain of gold to our sepoys … [to] desert the standard of the Company. The Company promises only a moderate pension after long service. But every sepoy knows that the promise of the Company will be kept … that if he lives a hundred years his rice and salt are as secure as the salary of the Governor general.” Macaulay, T. C., Lord Clive (London: Dent, 1920) at 87Google Scholar. The mutiny was a mere two decades away when the essay was written.

86. Macaulay, T. B., A History of England To the Death of William III, vol. 2 (London: Heron, 1967) at 398Google Scholar.

87. The image comes from Stephen, Fitzjames: “[T]he Indian Penal Code is to the English criminal law what a manufactured article is to the materials out of which it is made.” Quoted in Trevelyan, G. O., Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay, vol. 1 (London: Longmans & Green, 1876) at 418Google Scholar.

88. Arnold, M., “The Function of the Critic at the Present Time” in Arnold, M., ed., Essays in Criticism (London: Macmillan, 1896) at 25, 26Google Scholar [hereinafter “The Function of Critic”].

89. Wilson, J. Dover, “Editor's Preface” in Arnold, M., ed., Culture and Anarchy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960) at xiii [hereinafter Culture and Anarchy]Google Scholar.

90. “The Function of Critic”, supra note 88 at 37. Compare Newman's remarks: “There are men who embrace in their minds a vast multitude of ideas, but with little sensitivity about their real relations towards each other. These may be antiquarians, annalists, naturalists; they may be learned in the law … in statistics; they are most useful in their own place; still, there is nothing in such attainments to guarantee the absence of a narrowness of mind … [T]hey have not what specifically deserves the name of culture of mind, or fulfils the type of liberal education.” Newman, J. H., “Liberal Knowledge Viewed in Relation to Learning” in Newman, J. H., On the Scope and Nature of University Education (London: Dent, 1915) 116 at 126Google Scholar.

91. Culture and Anarchy, supra note 89 at 70.

92. Jones, G. Stedman, Outcast London: A Study in the Relationship Between Classes in Victorian Society (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976)Google Scholar; McClelland, J. S., The Crowd and the Mob (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989) c. 7Google Scholar.

93. Graff, G. & Robbins, B., “Cultural Criticism” in Greenblatt, S. & Gunn, G., eds., Redrawing the Boundaries: The Transformation of English and American Literary Studies (New York: Modern Languages Association of America, 1992) 419 at 421Google Scholar.

94. Anderson, P., “Figures of Descent” (1987) 161 New Left Rev. 40 at 41Google Scholar.

95. Cowan, P., “The Origins of an Administrative Elite” (1987) 162 New Left Rev. 4Google Scholar

96. Letter of W. E. Gladstone to Lord John Russell (November 1854) quoted in Feuchtwanger, E., Gladstone (London: Allen Lane, 1975) at 91Google Scholar.

97. On Gladstone's Coleridgean leanings, see Matthew, H., Gladstone, 1809-1874 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986)Google Scholar.

98. Cain, P. & Hopkins, A., British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion, 1688-1914 (London: Longman, 1993)Google Scholar. The city and the bank were, by the end of the century, particularly important to landowners increasingly disinvesting in real property and exporting capital. Chesterman, M., “Family Settlements on Trust: Landowners and the Rising Bourgeoisie” in Sugarman, D. & Rubin, G., eds., Law in Economy and Society: Essays in the History of English Law, 1750-1914 (Abingdon: Professional, 1984) 124Google Scholar.

99. The Teaching of English in England, Being the Report of the Departmental Committee (London: HMSO, 1921) para. 233Google Scholar [hereinafter The Newbolt Report].

100. See e.g. Arnold's humorous reply in Essays in Criticism, supra note 88 at vi.

101. B. Jowett quoted in Doyle, supra note 32 at 21.

102. Macaulay's mother was one. Sarah Austin kept her husband, John the Jurist, on her earnings as a translator, and produced the Lectures on Jurisprudence from his notes, after his death. Hamburger, J. & Hamburger, L., Troubled Lives: John and Sarah Austin (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1985)Google Scholar.

103. Eagleton, T., Literary Theory: An Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983) at 27Google Scholar.

104. Supra note 99.

105. German, of course, was mentioned.

106. MacKenzie, J., Propaganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British Public Opinion, 1880-1960 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984)Google Scholar; McClintock, A., Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995)Google Scholar.

107. Doyle, supra note 32 at 70, 71.

108. See Middleton, N. & Weitzman, S., A Place For Everyone: A History of State Education from the Eighteenth Century to the 1970s (London: Gollancz, 1976) c. 6Google Scholar.

109. See e.g. Goodrich, P., “Poor Illiterate Reason: History, Nationalism and the Common Law” (1992) 1:1Social and Legal Studies 7CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Goodrich, P., Oedipus Lex: Psychoanalysis, History, Law (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

110. Dicey, A. V., An Introduction to the Law of the Constitution, 9th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1950)Google Scholar. Ironically, of course, the judges he has in mind would not have seen themselves as creating, but rather as applying to a specific dispute already-existing principles.

111. Arthurs, H., Without the Law: Administrative Justice and Legal Pluralism in Nineteenth Century England (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985)Google Scholar.

112. The current edition is Austin, J., The Province of Jurisprudence Determined, ed. by Hart, H. L. A (London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1954)Google Scholar.

113. Hamburger & Hamburger, supra note 102 at 225, note 6.

114. Indeed, the Hamburgers point out that Austin himself had, by mid-century, “ceased to be an Austinian.” Ibid. at 189.

115. Rubin, E., “Austin's Political Pamphlets, 1824-1859” in Attwooll, E., Perspectives in Jurisprudence (Glasgow: University of Glasgow Press, 1977) 20Google Scholar.

116. Letter from Sarah Austin quoted in Hamburger & Hamburger, supra note 102 at 186 from Ross, Janet, Three Generations of Englishwomen (London: 1893)Google Scholar.

117. Mill, J. S., “On Liberty” in Mill, J. S., Three Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975) 5, c. 4Google Scholar.

118. Cosgrove, R., The Rule of Law: Albert Venn Dicey, Victorian Jurist (Durham, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980) c. 4CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Hearn, W. E., Professor of Law at the University of Melbourne, whose term “the rule of law” apparently was, wrote The Theory of Legal Duties and Rights: An Introduction to Analytical Jurisprudence (Melbourne: Government Printer, 1883)Google Scholar.

119. Jennings, I., The Law and the Constitution, 5th ed. (London: University of London Press, 1959) at 310–11Google Scholar.

120. Stephen, J. F., Liberty, Equality and Fraternity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967) at 155Google Scholar.

121. Leavis, F. R., The Two Cultures? The Significance of CP Snow (London: Chatto & Windus, 1962) at 12Google Scholar. Leavis's writings are full of contextual material. Like the socio-legal scholars in the Law discipline, he establishes his canon and then contextualises the already-Great, the better to understand it, which is why, for my purposes, he is not part of the drift towards cultural studies. Anderson writes of Leavis's “pervasive nostalgia for an ‘organic community’ of the past.” Anderson, P., “Coponents of National Culture” in Anderson, P., ed., English Questions (London: Verso, 1992) 48 at 99Google Scholar. See also Brooker, P., Stigant, P. & Widdowson, P., “History and ‘Literary Value’” in Humm, P., Stigant, P. & Widdowson, P., eds., Popular Fictions: Essays in Literature and History (London: Methuen, 1986) 68Google Scholar.

122. Doyle, supra note 32 at 88.

123. Stephen, supra note 120; Devlin, P., The Enforcement of Morals (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965)Google Scholar; Dworkin, R., Law's Empire (London: Collins, 1984)Google Scholar.

124. Hart, supra note 11 at 107.

125. Ibid. at 111.

126. Neither Hart nor anyone else seems to have noticed that the gesture of denial is simultaneously one of affirmation, as in, for example “this is not a sentence.”