Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T09:16:39.591Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Reflections on the past, present and future of pediatric cardiology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 August 2008

Julien I. E. Hoffman
Julien I. E. Hoffman*
Affiliation:
From the Department of Pediatrics and the Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco
*
Dr. Julien l.E.Hoffrnan, Box 0544, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA. Tel. 415-476-9313; Fax. 415-476-0676.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

About 1.5 million children are born each year world-wide with congenital heart disease. The nine most frequently occurring lesions are patency of the arterial duct (ductus arteriosus), atrial septal defect within the oval fossa, atrioventricular septal defect, ventricular septal defect, coarctation of the aorta, valvar pulmonary stenosis, valvar aortic stenosis, tetralogy of Fallot, and complete transposition. Their natural history is presented and compared with representative results of surgical treatment. Surgery has markedly improved the outcome for all these lesions, although almost no patients have been followed postoperatively for more than 25 years. Because congenital heart lesions are likely to consume an increasing proportion of cardiological resources in future years, the long-term future in this field rests with prevention of these lesions if at all possible. Recent advances in molecular and developmental biology, some of which are discussed, will certainly aid in diagnosis and may well bring the time at which prevention can be achieved closer to reality.

Type
Editorials
Information
Cardiology in the Young , Volume 4 , Issue 3 , July 1994 , pp. 208 - 223
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Hoffman, JIE. Congenital heart disease: incidence and inheritance. Pediatr Clin N Am 1990; 37: 25–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization World Health Statistics Annual. United Nations Organisation, Geneva, 1990.Google Scholar
Roberts, WC.The congenitally bicuspid aortic valve. A study of 85 autopsy cases. Am J Cardiol 1970; 26: 72–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, M.Natural history of persistent ductus arteriosus. Br Heart J 1968; 30: 4–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samánek, M.Children with congenital heart disease: probability of natural survival. Pediatr Cardiol 1992; 13: 152–158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abbott, ME.Atlas of Congenital Cardiac Disease. The American Heart Association, New York, 1936; p. 62.Google Scholar
Bullock, LT, Jones, JC, Dolley, FS.The diagnosis and the effects of ligation of the patent ductus arteriosus: a report of eleven cases. J Pediatr 1939; 15: 786–801.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fontana, RS, Edwards, JE.Congenital Cardiac Disease: A Review of 357 Cases Studied Pathologically. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, 1962, p. 290.Google Scholar
Keys, A.Patency of the ductus arteriosus in adults. Am Heart J 1943; 25: 158–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welch, KJ, Kinney, TD.The effect of patent ductus arteriosus and of interauricular and interventricular septal defects on the development of pulmonary vascular lesions. Am J Path 1948; 24: 729–762.Google ScholarPubMed
Morris, CD, Menashe, VD.25-year mortality after surgical repair of congenital heart defect in childhood. A population-based cohort study. J Am Med Assoc 1991; 266: 3447–3452.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirklin, JW, Barratt-Boyes, BG. Patent ductus arteriosus. In: Kirklin, JW, Barratt-Boyes, BG (eds). Cardiac Surgery. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 1993, pp 841–859.Google ScholarPubMed
Campbell, M.Natural history of atrial septal defect. Br Heart J 1970; 32: 820–826.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cosby, RS, Griffith, GC.Interatrial septal defect. Am Heart J 1949; 38: 80–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roesler, H.Interatrial septal defect. Arch Int Med 1934; 54:339–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, WT, Haffajee, CI, Dalen, JE, Dexter, L, Nadas, AS. Atrial septal defect: clinical profile with physiologic correlates in children and adults. In: Roberts, W (ed). Congenital Heart Disease in Adults. Davis, Philadelphia, 1979, pp 267–277.Google Scholar
Craig, RJ, Seizer, A.Natural history and prognosis of atrial septal defect. Circulation 1968; 37: 805–815.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rich, MW.Geriatric cardiology. Cardiovasc Rev Rep 1992; 13: 9–14.Google Scholar
Murphy, JG, Gersh, BJ, McGoon, MD, Mair, DD, Porter, CJ, Ilstrup, DM, McGoon, DC, Puga, FJ, Kirklin, JW, Danielson, GK.Long-term outcome after surgical repair of isolated atrial septal defect. Follow-up at 27 to 32 years. New Engl J Med 1990; 323: 1645–1650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horvath, KA, Burke, RP, Collins, JJ Jr, Cohn, LH.Surgical treatment of adult atrial septal defect: early and long-term results. J Am Coll Cardiol 1992; 20: 1156–1159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
StJohn Sutton, MG, Tajik, AJ, McGoon, DC.Atrial septal defect in patients 60 years or older: operative results and longterm postoperative follow-up. Circulation 1981; 64:402–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Somerville, J.Ostium primum defects: factors causing deterioration in the natural history. Br Heart J 1965; 27: 413–419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McMullan, MH, McGoon, DC, Wallace, RB, Danielson, GK, Weidman, WH.Surgical treatment of partial atrioventricular canal. Arch Surg 1973; 107: 705–710.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hynes, JK, Tajik, AJ, Seward, JB, Fuster, V, Ritter, DG, Brandenburg, RO, Puga, FJ, Danielson, GK, McGoon, DC.Partial atrioventricular canal defect in adults. Circulation 1982; 66: 284–287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berger, TJ, Blackstone, EH, Kirklin, JW, Bargeron, LM Jr, Hazelrig, JB, Turner, ME Jr. Survival and probability of cure without and with surgery in complete atrioventricular canal. Ann Thorac Surg 1979; 27: 104–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirklin, JW, Barratt-Boyes, BG. Atrioventricular canal defect. In: Kirklin, JW, Barratt-Boyes, BG (eds). Cardiac Surgery. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 1993, pp 693–747.Google ScholarPubMed
Dickinson, DF, Arnold, R, Wilkinson, JL.Ventricular septal defect in children born in Liverpool 1960 to 1969. Evaluation of natural course and surgical implications in an unselected population. Br Heart J 1981; 46: 47–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fyler, DC, Buckley, LP, Hellenbrand, WE, Cohn, HE.Report of the New England Regional Infant Care Program. Pediatrics 1980; 65(Supplyes) 375–461.Google Scholar
Campbell, M.Natural history of ventricular septal defect. Br Heart J 1971; 33: 246–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, JH IV, Moodie, DS, Sterba, S, Gill, CG.Ventricular septal defect in the adult: Natural and unnatural history. Am Heart J 1987; 114: 115–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corone, P, Doyon, F, Gaudeau, S, Guérin, F, Vernant, P, Ducam, H, Rurneau-Rouquette, C, Gaudeul, P.Natural history of ventricular septal defect. A study involving 790 cases. Circulation 1977; 55: 908–915.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, WJ, Garcia-González, E, Hall, RJ, Czarnecki, S, Franklin, RB, Das, SK, Cheitlin, MD.Interventricular septal defect. Analysis of 415 catheterized cases, ninety with serial hemody namic studies. Circulation 1965; 31: 54–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Selzer, A, Laqueur, GL.The Eisenmenger complex and its relation to the uncomplicated defect ofthe ventricular septum: review of thirty-five autopsied cases of Eisenmenger's complex, including two new cases. Arch Int Med 1951; 87: 218–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moller, JH, Patton, C, Varco, RL, Lillehei, CW.Late results (30 to 35 years) after operative closure of isolated ventricular septal defect from 1954 to 1960. Am J Cardiol 1991; 68: 1491–1497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kidd, L, Driscoll, DJ, Gersony, WM, Hayes, CJ, Keane, JF, O'Fallon, WM, Pieroni, DR, Wolfe, RR, Weidman, WH.Second natural history study of congenital heart defects. Results of treatment of patients with ventricular septal defects. Circulation; 1993; 87: 38–51.Google ScholarPubMed
Greene, DG, Baldwin, ED, Baldwin, JS, Himmelstein, A, Roh, CE, Cournand, A.Pure congenital pulmonary stenosis and idiopathic congenital dilatation of the pulmonary artery. Am J Med 1949; 6: 24–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, M.The natural history of congenital pulmonary stenosis. Br Heart J 1969; 31: 394.Google ScholarPubMed
Hayes, CJ, Gersony, WM, Driscoll, DJ, Keane, JF, Kidd, L, O'Fallon, WM, Pieroni, DR, Wolfe, RR, Weidman, WH.Second natural history study of congenital heart defects. Results of treatment of patients with pulmonary stenosis. Circulation 1993; 87: 28–37.Google Scholar
Kirklin, JW, Barratt-Boyes, BG. Pulmonary stenosis and intact ventricular septum. In: Kirklin, JW, Barrart-Boyes, BG (eds). Cardiac Surgery. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 1993, pp 1013–1034.Google ScholarPubMed
Campbell, M.Natural history of coarctation of the aorta. Br Heart J 1970; 32: 633–640.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirklin, JW, Barratt-Boyes, BG. Coarctation of the aorta and interrupted aortic arch. In: Kirklin, JW, Barratt-Boyes, BG (eds). Cardiac Surgery. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 1993, pp 1263–1325.Google ScholarPubMed
Abbott, ME.Coarctation of the aorta of the adult type II. A statistical study and historical retrospect of 200 recorded cases with autopsy, of stenosis or obliteration of the descending arch. Am Heart J 1928; 3: 392–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reifenstein, GH, Levine, SA, Gross, RE.Coarctation of the aorta. A review of 104 autopsied cases of the “adult type,” 2 years of age or older. Am Heart J 1947; 33: 146–168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bobby, JJ, Emami, JM, Farmer, RTD, Newman, CGH.Operative survival and 40 year follow-up of surgical repair of aortic coarctation. Br Heart J 1991; 65: 271–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clarkson, PM, Nicholson, MR, Barratt-Boyes, BG, Neutze, JM, Whitlock, RM.Results after repair of coarctation of the aorta beyond infancy: A 10 to 28 year follow-up with particular reference to late systemic hypertension. Am J Cardiol 1983; 51: 1481–1488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, M, Fuster, V, Steele, PM, Driscoll, D, McGoon, DC.Coarctation of the aorta: long-term follow-up and prediction of outcome after surgical correction. Circulation 1989; 80: 840–845.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Presbitero, P, Demarie, D, Villani, M, Actis Perinetto, E, Riva, G, Orzan, F, Bobbio, M, Morea, M, Brusca, A.Long-term results (15–30 years) of surgical repair of aortic coarctation. Br Heart J 1987; 57: 462–467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, M.The natural history of congenital aortic stenosis. Br Heart J 1968; 30: 514–526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keane, JF, Driscoll, DJ, Gersony, WM, Hayes, CJ, Kidd, L, O'Fallon, WM, Pieroni, DR, Wolfe, RR, Weidman, WH.Second natural history study of congenital heart defects. Results of treatment of patients with aortic stenosis. Circulation 1993; 87: 16–27.Google Scholar
Gersony, WM, Hayes, CJ, Driscoll, DJ, Keane, JF, Kidd, L, O'Fallon, WM, Pieroni, DR, Wolfe, RR, Weidman, WH.Bacterial endocarditis in patients with aortic stenosis, pulmonary stenosis, or ventricular septal defect. Circulation 1993; 87: 121–126.Google ScholarPubMed
Hoffman, JIE. Aortic stenosis. In: Moller, JH, Neal, WA (eds). Fetal, Neonatal, and Infant Heart Disease. Appleton & Lange, Norwalk, CT, 1990, pp 451–473.Google Scholar
Campbell, M.Natural history of cyanotic malformations and comparison of all common cardiac malformations. Br Heart J 1972; 34: 3–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rygg, IH, Olesen, K, Boesen, I.The life history of tetralogy of Fallot. Dan Med Bull 1971; 18(Suppl 2yes): 25–30.Google ScholarPubMed
Bertranou, EG, Blackstone, EH, Hazelrig, JB, Turner, ME Jr, Kirklin, JW.Life expectancy without surgery in tetralogy of Fallot. Am J Cardiol 1978; 42: 458–466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perloff, JK, Child, JS. Natural survival patterns. In: Perloff, JK, Child, JS (eds). Congenital Heart Disease in Adults. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 1991, pp 21–59.Google ScholarPubMed
Kirklin, JW, Barratt-Boyes, BG. Ventricular septal defect and pulmonary stenosis or atresia. In: Kirklin, JW, Barratt-Boyes, BG (eds). Cardiac Surgery. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 1993, pp 861–1012.Google ScholarPubMed
Murphy, JG, Gersh, BJ, Mair, DD, Fuster, V, McGoon, MD, Ilstrup, DM, McGoon, DC, Kirklin, JW, Danielson, GK.Long-term outcome in patients undergoing surgical repair of tetralogy of Fallot. New Engl J Med 1993; 329: 593–599.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Park, I-S, Leachman, RD, Cooley, DA.Total correction of tetralogy of Fallot in adults: surgical results and long-term follow-up. Texas Heart Inst J 1987; 14: 160–169.Google ScholarPubMed
Liebman, J, Cullum, L, Belloc, NB.Natural history of transposition of the great arteries. Circulation 1969; 40: 237–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, WG, Trusler, GA, Kirklin, JW, Blackstone, EH, Coles, JG, Izukawa, T, Freedom, RM.Early and late results ofa protocol for simple transposition leading to an atrial switch (Mustard) repair. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1988; 95: 717–726.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirklin, JW, Barratt-Boyes, BG. Complete transposition of the great arteries. In: Kirklin, JW, Barratt-Boyes, BG (eds). Cardiac Surgery, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 1993, pp 1383–1467.Google ScholarPubMed
Burn, J.Genetic advances in pediatric cardiology. Current Opinion Cardiol 1988; 3: 41–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burn, J. The aetiology of congenital heart disease. In: Anderson, RH, Macartney, FJ, Shinebourne, EA, Tynan, M (eds). Paediatric Cardiology. Churchill Livingstone, London, 1987, pp 15–63.Google Scholar
The Cardiology Working Group. Cardiology and the quality of medical practice. J Am Med Assoc 1991; 265: 482–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickinson, DF, Arnold, R, Wilkinson, JL.Congenital heart disease among 160,480 liveborn children in Liverpool 1960 to 1969. Implication forsurgical treatment. Br Heart J 1981; 46: 55–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macartney, F.A better deal for newborns with congenital heart disease. Arch Dis Child 1979; 54: 268–270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, NK, Cretin, S.The changing face of congenital heart disease. A method for predicting the influence of cardiac surgery upon the prevalence and spectrum of congenital heart disease. Med Care 1980; 18: 930–939.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perloff, J.Bethesda Conference 22: Congenital heart disease after childhood: an expanding patient population. J Am Coll Cardiol 1991; 18: 311–342.Google Scholar
Carter, CO.The effect of successful treatment on the future birth frequency of congenital heart disease. Eur J Cardiol 1975; 2: 374–375. [Abstract]Google Scholar
Anderson, GM, Grumbach, K, Luft, HS, Roos, LL, Mustard, C, Brook, R.Use of coronary artery bypass surgery in the United Sates and Canada. Influence of age and income. J Am Med Assoc 1993; 269: 1661–1666.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rouleau, JL, Moyé, LA, Pfeffer, MA, Arnold, JMO, Bernstein, V, Cuddy, TE, Dagenais, DR, Geltman, EM, Goldman, S, Gordon, D, Hamm, P, Klein, M, Lamas, GA, McCans, J, McEwan, P, Menapace, FJ, Parker, JO, Sestier, F, Sussex, B, Braunwald, E.A comparison of management patterns after acute myocardial infarction in Canada and the United States. New Engl J Med 1993; 328: 779–784.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bodmer, R.The tinman gene specifies heart and visceral muscle formation in Drosophila. J Cell Biochem 1993; Supplyes 17D: 218. [Abstract]Google Scholar
Hummel, KP, Chapman, DB.Visceral inversion and associated anomalies in the mouse. J Hered 1959; 50: 10–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brueckner, M, D'Eustachio, P, Horwich, AL.Linkage mapping of a mouse gene, iv, that controls left-right asymmetry of the heart and viscera. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 1989; 86: 5035–5038.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanzlik, AJ, Binder, M, Layton, WM, Rowe, L, Layton, M, Taylor, BA, Osemlak, MM, Richards, JE, Kurnit, DM, Stewart, GD.The murine situs inversus viscerum (iv) gene responsible for visceral asymmetry is linked tightly to the Igh-C cluster on chromosome 12. Genomics 1990; 7: 383–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Meeus, A, Alonso, S, Bouvagnet, P.Mapping of the iv mutation to the tip of mouse chromosome 12. Cardiol Young 1993; 3(Suppl 1yes): 83. [Abstract]Google Scholar
Van Keuren, ML, Layton, WM, Iacob, RA, Kurnit, DM.Situs inversus in the developing mouse: proteins affected by the iv mutation (genocopy) and the teratogen retinoic acid (phenocopy). Mol Reprod Develop 1991; 29: 136–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Layton, WM, Layton, MW, Binder, M, Kurnit, DM, Hanzlik, AJ, Van Keuren, M, Biddle, FG.Expression of the IV (reversed and/or heterotaxic) phenotype in SWV mice. Teratology 1993; 47: 595–602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yokoyama, T, Copeland, LG, Jenkins, NA, Montgonmery, CA, Elder, FFB, Overbeek, PA.Reversal of left-right symmetry: a situs inversus mutation. Science 1993; 260: 679–682.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fransen, ME, Lemanski, LF.Extracellular matrix of the developing heart in normal and cardiac lethal mutant axolotls, Ambystoma mexicanum. Anat Rec 1991; 230: 387–405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirby, ML.Cardiac morphogenesis—recent research advances. Pediatr Res 1987; 21: 219–224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, M, Connell, MG, Smith, A, Anderson, RH.Absence of outlet septum—consistency of effect induced by the drug bisdiamine. Cardiol Young 1993; 3(Suppl 1yes): 124. [Abstract]Google Scholar
Lammar, EJ, Chen, DT, Hoar, RM, Agnish, ND, Benke, PJ, Braun, JT, Curry, CJ, Fernhoff, PM, Grix, AW, Lott, IT, Richard, JM, Sun, SC.Retinoic acid embryopathy. A new human teratogen and a mechanistic hypothesis. New Engl J Med 1986; 313: 837–841.Google Scholar
Lynberg, MC, Khoury, MJ, Lammer, EJ, Waller, KO, Cordero, JF, Erickson, JD.Sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value of multiple malformations in isotretinoin embryopathy surveillance. Teratology 1990; 42: 513–519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Luca, LM.Retinoids and their receptors in differentiation, embryogenesis, and neoplasia. Fed Am Sci Eng Biol J; 1991; 5: 2924–2933.Google ScholarPubMed
Sporn, MB, Roberts, AB.Interaction of retinoids and transforming growth factor-b in regulation of cell differentiation and proliferation. Mol Endocrin 1991; 5: 3–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, JN, Howell, JM, Pitt, GAJ, McLaughlin, CI. The biological activity of retinoic acid in the domestic fowl and the effects ofvitamin A deficiency on the chick embryo. Br J Nutr 1969; 23: 471–490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heine, UI, Roberts, AB, Muñ oz, EF, Roche, NS, Sporn, MB.Effect of retinoid deficiency on the development of the heart and vascular system of the quail embryo. Virchows Arch 1985; 50: 135–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolf, G.The intracellular vitamin A-binding proteins: an overview of their functions. Nutr Rev 1991; 49: 1–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, WL, Crawford, LA, Cooper, OJ, Farmer, GR, Thomas, D, Freeman, BL.Generation of radical oxygen species by neural crest cells treated in vitro with isotretinoin and 4-oxo-isotretinoin. J Craniofacial Genet Devel Biol 1990; 10: 295–310.Google ScholarPubMed
Broekhuizen, M, Mast, F, Gittenberger-de Groot, A, Wladimiroff, J.Hemodynamic changes in stage 35 chick embryos after treatment with all-trans retinoic acid. Cardiol Young 1993; 3(Suppl 1yes): 42. [Abstract]Google Scholar
Kraft, JC, Juchau, MR.Correlations between conceptal concentrations of all-trans-retinoic acid and dysmorphogenesis after microinjection of all-trans-retinoic acid, 13-cis-retinoic acid, all-trans-retinoyl-beta-glucuronide, or retinol in cultured whole rat embryos. Drug Metab Dispos Biol Fate Chem 1992; 20: 218–225.Google ScholarPubMed
Wilson, D, Goodship, J, Takao, A, Momma, A, Cross, I, Scambler, P, Burn, J.Identification of interstitial 22q11 deletion in conotruncal anomaly faces syndrome. Cardiol Young 1993; 3(Suppl 1yes): 86. [Abstract]Google Scholar
Baldwin, HS, Shen, HM, Albelda, S, Buck, C.The murine platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule is developmentally regulated during early cardiac morphogenesis. Cardiol Young 1993; 3(Suppl 1yes): 99. [Abstract]Google Scholar
Wright, TC, Destrempes, M, Orkin, R, Kurnit, DM.Increased adhesiveness of Down syndrome fetal fibroblasts in vitro. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 1984; 81: 2426–2430.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurnit, DM, Aidridge, JF, Matsuoka, R, Matthysse, S.Increased adhesiveness of trisomy 21 cells and atrioventricular canal malformations in Down syndrome: a stochastic model. Am J Med Genet 1985; 20: 385–399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurnit, DM, Layton, WM, Matthysse, S.Genetics, chance and morphogenesis. Am J Hum Genet 1987; 41: 979–995.Google ScholarPubMed
Lukács, L, Szántó, G, Kassai, I, Lengyel, M.Late results after repair of partial atrioventricular septal defect. Texas Heart Inst J 1992; 19: 265–269.Google Scholar
Moller, JH, Anderson, RC.Natural history of congenital heart disease. 1000 consecutive children with cardiac malformations with 26–37 year follow-up. Am J Cardiol 1992; 70: 661–667.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ankeney, JL, Tzeng, TS, Liebman, J.Surgical therapy for congenital aortic valvular stenosis. A 23 year experience. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1983; 85: 41–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, JW, Stevens, LS, Holly, S, Robison, R, Rodefeld, M, Grayson, T, Marts, B, Caldwell, RA, Hurwitz, RA, Girod, DA, King, H.Surgical spectrum of aortic stenosis in children: a thirty-year experience with 257 children. Ann Thorac Surg 1988; 45: 393–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hossack, KF, Neutze, JM, Lowe, JB, Barratt-Boyes, BG.Congenital valvular aortic stenosis. Natural history and assessment for operation. Br Heart J 1980; 43: 561–573.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hsieh, K-S, Keane, JF, Nadas, AS, Bernhard, WF, Castañeda, AR.Long-term follow-up of valvotomy before 1968 for congenital aortic stenosis. Am J Cardiol 1986; 58: 338–341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, M, Barnhart, GR, Morrow, AG.Late results after operations for left ventricular outflow tract obstruction. Am J Cardiol 1982; 50: 569–579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kugelmeier, J, Egloff, L, Real, F, Rothlin, M, Turina, M, Senning, A.Congenital aortic stenosis. Early and late results of aortic valvulotomy. Thorac Cardiovasc Surgeon 1981; 30: 91–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawson, RM, Bonchek, LI, Menashe, V, Starr, A.Late results of surgery for left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in children. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1976; 71: 334–341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Presbitero, P, Somerville, J, Revel-Chion, R, Ross, D.Open aortic valvotomy for congenital aortic stenosis. Late results. Br Heart J 1982; 47: 26–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salomon, NW, Stinson, EB, Oyer, P, Copeland, JG, Shumway, NE.Operative treatment of congenital aortic stenosis. Ann Thorac Surg 1978; 26: 452–460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sandor, GGS, Olley, PM, Trusler, GA, Williams, WG, Rowe, RD, Morch, JE. Long-term follow-up of patients after valvotomy for congenital valvular aortic stenosis in children. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1980; 80: 171–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wheller, JJ, Hosier, DM, Teske, DW, Craenen, JM, Kilman, JW.Results of operation for aortic valve stenosis in infants, children and adolescents. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1988; 96: 474–477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirklin, JW, Barratt-Boyes, BG. Congenital aortic stenosis. In: Kirklin, JW, Barratt-Boyes, BG (eds). Cardiac Surgery. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 1993, pp 1195–1237.Google ScholarPubMed
Ikeda, M, Hirosawa, K.Tetralogy of Fallot. Circulation 1968; 37(Suppl Vyes): V 21–V 34.Google Scholar