1. See, e.g. Bastid, M., “Le système éducatif et Involution de la jeunesse,” Projet, No. 132 (02 1979), pp. 134–47Google Scholar; Pepper, S., “Chinese education after Mao: two steps forward, two steps back and begin again?,” The China Quarterly, No. 81 (03 1980), pp. 1–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Idem., “China's universities: new experiments in socialist democracy and administrative reform – research report,” Modern China, Vol. 8, No. 2 (April 1982), pp. 147–204; Shirk, S., “Educational reform and political backlash: recent changes in Chinese educational policy,” Comparative Education Review, 06 1979, pp. 183–217Google Scholar.

2. Some of the information used in this article is based upon private conversations with chinese officials and academics.

3. It was the first point made in his speech: see full text in Deng Xiaoping wenxuan (Selected Writings of Deng Xiaoping) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe: 1983), pp. 83–88Google Scholar.

4. Guangming ribao (Clarity Daily), 2 November 1980, p. 2.

5. Guangyuan, Yu, “Guanyu jiaoyu shi shengchanli de wenti” (“On the question that education is a productive force”), Jiaoyu yanjiu (Educational Research) (Beijing), No. 5 (1980), pp. 2–6Google Scholar.

6. The full text of the draft appeared in Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guowuyuan gongbao (Official Bulletin of the State Council of the People's Republic of China) (hereafter GWGB), No. 404 (10 06 1983), pp. 307–410Google Scholar. A summary has been published in Guangming ribao,13 December 1982, pp. 1–4.

7. Especially the speech given by the minister of education, Zhou Rongxin, on 7 May 1 1975 and the two letters sent to Mao Zedong by Qinghua University Party secretary Liu Bing that came under heavy fire in late November 1975. See also the document of the Planning Commission drafted in May 1975, submitted by Deng Xiaoping to the Central Committee in a revised version on 2 September 1975, under the title “Guanyu jiakuai fazhan gongye ruogan wenti” (“Some questions on accelerating the development of industry”): Chinese text in Zhanwang (Outlook) (Hong Kong), No. 372 (1 08 1977), pp. 31–36Google Scholar; English translation in Lieberthal, K., Central Documents and Politburo Politics in China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies, 1978), pp. 133–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8. For a forceful attack on the idea of science as a productive force, see Li, Kang and Feng, Yan, “Huibao tigang chu de qianqian houhou” (“The ins and outs of the Report Outline”), Xuexi yu pipan (Study and Criticism) (Shanghai), No. 4 (1976), pp. 25–26Google Scholar; against the “revisionist tendencies” in education and the effort to adapt education to economic requirements, sec Renmin ribao (People's Daily), 9 December 1975, p. 1, 15; February 1976, p. 1. The campaign of criticism in universities is surveyed by Peyraube, A. and Sabeau-Jouannet, C., “Boiter sur ses deux jambes: la révolution de l'enseignement en Chine,” Tel Quel (Paris), No. 66 (Summer 1976), pp. 15–21Google Scholar.

9. Guangming ribao, 14 March 1977, p. 1, 30 May 1977, p. 1. Zhongo gongchandang di shiyi ci quanguo daibiao dahui wenjian huibian (Documents from the CCP 11th Congress) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1977), pp. 60, 63Google Scholar.

10. This speech has been published only recently in Deng's, Selected Writings, pp. 45–55Google Scholar, and has then been reproduced in the press and made a subject of political study sessions: see Guangming ribao, 2July 1983, p. 1.

11. See Vice-premier Fang Yi's report to the Seventh Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Fourth National Political Consultative Conference, Renmin ribao, 30 December 1977, p. 2.

12. Ibid. 26 April 1978, pp. 1–2, translated in Peking Review, No. 18, 5 05 1978Google Scholar.

13. Reports on this conference and the provincial meetings that followed mention heated discussions: see Renmin ribao editorial of 17 May 1978, and 24 May 1978, p. 2.

14. See Bastid, M., “A la recherche d'une stratégie de l'éducation: école et développement économique depuis 1949,” Tiers Monde (Paris), Vol. 22, No. 86 (04–06 1981), pp. 317–38Google Scholar.

15. For a brief survey of China's relations with UNESCO and UNESCO's involvement in China, see Guangming ribao, 4 August 1983, p. 4.

16. The report of this mission by A. T. Birch, D. K. Gosh and R. Hamelin is entitled “Strenthening technical training and research in universities,” UNDP/CPR/80/041.

17. The report was issued on 1 June 1981 (hereinafter WBR). I wish to thank the World Bank for kindly allowing me to quote from this document.

18. The daily press published a large number of articles pushing the points made by international experts.

19. World Bank News Release, No. 81/122, 24 06 1981Google Scholar. China Exchange News, Vol. 9, No. 3, 09 1981Google Scholar. Guangming ribao, 4 August 1983, p. 4.

20. It was nominally four years, in fact a little more than three because of the long manual labour period, in 1964–66 just before the Cultural Revolution, and nominally three years, in fact barely 18 months of study, for the same reason, in the early 1970s.

21. The combined figure for institutions of higher education is from Zhao Ziyang's report on government work to the first session of the Sixth National People's Congress, on 6 June 1983, Guangming ribao, 24 June 1983, p. 2. The list of key-point universities and colleges can be found in L'éducation en Chine (Beijing: Beijing Information, 1983), pp. 170–79Google Scholar.

22. Guangming ribao, 13 June 1980, p. 2.

23. See a protest on this issue in ibid. 16 August 1983, p. 2.

24. Age pyramids drawn from the July 1982 census do not distinguish between city and countryside. But more efficient birth-control measures in the cities make it likely that in the concerned age-group rural youth may represent more than the average 79·4 % rural residents in the total population.

25. Chengxian, Zhang, “Gaige nongcun jiaoyu wei jianshe shehuizhuyi xin nongcun fuwu” (“Reform rural education to serve the construction of the socialist new village”), Guangming ribao, 28 08 1982, p. 1Google Scholar; also his speech to the 12th Party Congress, ibid. 6 September 1982, p. 4.

26. This was the official figure quoted in 1980, see Renmin ribao, 19 April 1980, p. 3.

27. Cahiers de la Chine nouvelle, No. 3848 (5–6 10 1982), p. 11Google Scholar. Speech of a delegate from Yunnan province to the first session of the Sixth National People's Congress, Renmin ribao, 13 06 1983, p. 2Google Scholar.

28. Information released by a National People's Congress delegation to Western Europe in October 1983.

29. 1982 Zhongguo jingji nianjian (Almanac of China's economy 1982) (Beijing: Jingji guanli zazhi she, 1982Google Scholar), V/390.

30. See Ziyang's, Zhao report to the National People's Congress on 6 June 1983, Guangming ribao, 24 06 1983, p. 3Google Scholar.

31. According to Beichen, Chen, vice-governor of the province, Guangming ribao, 4 12 1982, p. 4Google Scholar.

32. Computed from statistics in 1980 Zhongguo baike nianjian (China Yearbook 1980) (Shanghai: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe, 1980), pp. 537, 544 and 1982Google Scholar Zhongguo jingji nianjian, V/389–90; also Guangming ribao, 25 April 1982, p. 1, and 30 April 1983, p. 2.

33. A figure of 43% of primary and secondary schools run under that system was given in 1982, Guangming ribao, 2 August 1982, p. 1.

34. The limited-term mandate is still far from being the general rule. In Wuhan city for instance, it applies to only one-third of the secondary schools leadership: ibid. 31 March 1983, p. 1.

35. The Chinese ratio would be 23–2:1 if principals were included as they are in many other countries where primary schools principals are both teachers and managers. Student/teacher ratios for China are computed from the 1981 statistics published in 1982 Zhongguo jingji nianjian, V/389, others are from UNESCO surveys of world education.

36. 1982 Zhongguo jingji nianjian, V/391.

37. WBR, p. 40.

38. The 1983 regulations of the university entrance examination stress the point: Guangming ribao, 17 March 1983, p. 1.

39. Ibid. 24 January 1983, p. 2.

40. WBR, p. 27.

41. Jiaju, Qian, “Yao ba shang zengjia jiaoyu jingfei zuo wei shixian sihua de zhongyao zhanlue cuoshi” (“Increase of educational budget should be made an important strategic measure for the implementation of the Four Modernizations”), Jiaoyu yanjiu (Educational Research) (Beijing), No. 2 (1980), pp. 6–11Google Scholar.

42. 1981 Zhongguo baike nianjian (Chinese Yearbook 1981) (Shanghai: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe, 1981), p. 484Google Scholar; 1982 Zhongguo jingji nianjian, V/391.

43. Ministry of Education circular of 3 12 1980, 1981 Zhongguo baike nianjian, p. 470Google Scholar.

44. Anhui Teacher Training College has introduced a fairly sophisticated evaluation lystem including an activity report by each staff member, assignments and control by the head of the department, yearly assessment and rewards, Guangming ribao, 19 April 1983, p.1.

45. The new regulations are described in ibid. 25 January 1983, p. 1; 21 April 1983, p. 1; 14 July 1983, p. 1; 26 July 1983, p. 2.

46. Ibid. 4 August 1983, p. 4; 7 August 1983, p. 4.

47. Central document No. 16 of 6 May 1983, GWGB No. 407,10 07 1983, p. 531Google Scholar. See also Guangming ribao, 19 May 1983, p. 1

48. Ibid. 10 July 1983, p. 1; 6 August 1983, p. 1; 16 August 1983, p. 1; 17 August 1983, p.1.

49. Middle schools, for instance, will have 12 weeks'holiday in 1984 instead of 10 or 11 as provided by the 1981 regulations, and of eight or nine previously: Guangming ribao, 16 April 1983, p.1.

50. Ibid. 29 March 1983, p. 1. The norm prescribed by the Education Ministry is 1:6–5.

51. Ibid. 7 April 1983, p. 1.

52. They are decided by the local bureaus of education and seem sometimes to cause much resentment and criticism: see an example in a Shandong county, Guangming ribao, 14 February 1983, pp. 1 and 4; and the decision of the Ministry of Education that pupil performance should no longer be the basis for the evaluation of teacher quality, ibid. 26 August 1983, p. 1.

53. Renmin ribao, 13 September 1980, p. 3; Guangming ribao, 24 August 1982, p. 4; 3 December 1982, p. 4; 25 June 1983, p. 3.

54. WBR, p. 52.

55. 1982 Zhongguo jingji nianjian, V/388.

56. Ibid.; Summary of World Broadcasts, FE 7121/B 11 8, 3 September 1982 (NCNA, 29 August 1982); National People's Congress delegation to Europe in October 1983.

57. 1982 Zhongguo jingji nianjian, V/388.

58. The government of Zhejiang province for instance has recently announced that decision: Guangming ribao, 16 August 1983, p. 1.

59. Renmin ribao, 15 September 1980, p. 1.

60. A detailed account of discussions and action by Party and government leadership in this matter can be found in Liao wang (Clear Look) (Beijing), No. 6, 20 06 1983, pp. 4–6Google Scholar. Renmin ribao,16 June 1983, p. 1, drew reader's attention to that well-informed report.

61. Guangming ribao, 17 August 1983, p. 1.

62. Ibid. 18 August 1983, p. 1.

63. For example, the re-opening with 3,000 students of the Lixin Accounting School in Shanghai, founded in 1928 and closed down since 1953, Guangming ribao, 20 August 1983, p. 1; or the classes conducted by a team of the Hunan Democratic League in minority areas, ibid. 18 August 1983, p. 2; or the 230 million yuan paid by individual Henan peasants from 1978 to 1983 for education, ibid. 6 August 1983, p. 1.

64. Nankai University, for example, had a six-storey building erected with money from the Bank of China and China's Travel Agency for whom it had agreed to train specialized personnel: Guangming ribao, 18 April 1983, p. 4.

65. See the paragraph on this subject in the State Council directive on higher education of 28 April 1983, GWGB, No. 406 (30 06 1983), p. 494Google Scholar.

66. WBR, pp. 53, 56.

67. Ibid. p. 56.

68. In 1982 higher education received 2–2 billion yuan for recurring expenditure, i.e., one-fifth only of the central educational budget, but 950,000 yuan for capital construction, that is, the major part of the Education Ministry allocation for that purpose: GWGB, No. 406 (30 06 1983), p. 494Google Scholar.

69. See, e.g., the surveys conducted in Hunan and Anhui reported in Renmin ribao, 30 June 1983, p. 5, and Guangming ribao editorial, 29 July 1983, p. 1.

70. GWGB, No. 404 (10 06 1983), p. 389Google Scholar.

71. The 1990 target was given by vice-minister of education, Xinbai, Huang, Renmin ribao, 18 11 1982, p. 1Google Scholar, and the 1987 target by a State Council directive of 28 April 1983, GWGB, No. 406 (30 06 1983), p. 493Google Scholar. The government may reconsider and increase the 1990 target at a later stage. For the 1983 figure see Guangming ribao, 1 September 1983, p. 1.

72. GWGB, No. 406, p. 390Google Scholar.

73. Guangming ribao, 30 March 1983, p. 2.

74. See, e.g., the forceful criticism on that subject in Guangming ribao, 14 January 1983, p. 2. The recent reform of the system of scholarships which now links the amount received to the conduct and academic results of the recipient and introduces special awards not related to the family economic background, is designed to counteract such tendencies. In 1982 new programmes in ideological and moral education were started in primary schools (see Guangming ribao, 6 July 1982, p. 1; 8 July 1982, p. 1; 9 July 1982, p. 1); in 1983 the Party central Propaganda Department endeavoured to launch the teaching of patriotism at all school levels and in every activity (see the Propaganda Department document in Guangming ribao,16 July 1983, pp. 1–3, and the Ministry of Education action in ibid. 26 August 1983, p. 1).

75. On this point and the following see the intervention of Liu Fonian, president of East China Normal University, and the summary of discussions at the Sixth NPC session, Renmin Mao, 17 June 1983, p. 2.

76. Cf. the results of surveys made of Fudan University graduates in 1981 and 1982 and their contribution to their new work unit, as reported in Gaojiao zhanxian (Higher Education Front) (Shanghai), No. 4 (1983), pp. 10–12Google Scholar. Also the debates at the session of the National Consultative Political Conference, Renmin ribao, 19 June 1983, p. 5.

77. GWGB, No. 404, p. 326Google Scholar. For an excellent survey of the current Chinese study-programmes abroad, see Hayhoe, R. and Henze, J., Chinese-Western Scholarly Exchange and the Danger of Dependency, a paper presented, to the 11 th Conference of the Comparative Education Society in Europe, Würzburg, 3–11 07 1983Google Scholar.

78. For the early 1960s, see the table in Orleans, Leo, Manpower for Science and Engineering in China, prepared for the Committee on Science and Technology of the U.S. Congress, Washington, 1980, p. 22Google Scholar. Data on distribution in 1980 and 1982 are available in 1981 Zhongguo baike nianjian, p. 474, and in 1982 Zhongguo jingji nianjian, p. 390. For 1981, in 1982 Zhongguo baike nianjian, p. 571.

79. See the speech of a delegate of Zhejiang province at the National People's Congress session, Renmin ribao, 14 06 1983, p. 2Google Scholar.

80. Guangming ribao, 29 September 1981, p. 1.

81. Ibid. 21 January 1983, p. 1.

82. Ibid. 19 January 1983, p. 1.

83. For a description of the experiment and its prospects: ibid. 21 January 1983, p. 1.

84. Ibid. 16 July 1983, pp. 1 and 3.

85. Ibid. 30 March 1983, p. 2, 29 April 1983, p. 1. Similar schemes are mentioned in Fuzhou University (ibid. 30 March 1983, p. 2), Nanking Universit (ibid. 7 August 1983, p. 1), Nankai University (ibid. 18 April 1983, p. 4), Wuhan University (ibid. 7 August 1983, p. 1), Hefei Industrial University (ibid. 29 March 1983, p. 1).

86. This is the case as regards the agreement signed in April 1983 by Nankai University with the State Statistical Bureau (ibid. 18 April 1983), and for similar programmes in Nanking University (ibid. 7 August 1983, p. 1), but apparently not yet in Shanghai. The Central Document No. 16 of 6 May 1983 states that contract higher education for training technical personnel in rural areas is allowed to continue outside the plan provided it does not disturb realization of the plan: GWGB, No. 407 (10 07 1983), p. 531Google Scholar.

87. Guangmingribao, 16 March 1983, p. 1; 17 March 1983, p. 1.

88. See the article by Yarning, Kuang, honorary president of Nanking University, and three other famous academics in Zhongguo jiaoyu bao (Chinese Journal of Education) (Beijing), 9 07 1983Google Scholar.

89. Jiaoyu yanjiu, No. 2 (1980), pp. 6–11, and debates at the NPC sessions in 1982 and 1983Google Scholar.

90. WBR, p. 15.

91. 1980 Zhongguo baike nianjian, p. 240.

92. Guangming ribao, 30 April 1983, p. 2; 16 July 1983, p. 1.

93. Ibid. 30 March 1983, p. 2.

94. Directive of 28 April 1983, GWGB, No. 406 (30 06 1983), p. 493Google Scholar. See also the draft of the Sixth Five-Year Pan, ibid. No. 404 (10 June 1983), pp. 389–90.

95. Ibid. No. 406 (30 June 1983), p. 493.

96. For a detailed survey see the article by Li Changlong in Guangming ribao, 15 July 1983, p. 3. Enrolment figures given by the author for each type of school reach about twice the total of 644,000 mentioned in the report by the State Statistical Bureau on national economic and social development in 1982 (ibid. 30 April 1983, p. 2), which probably does not take into account non-degree programmes. A combined figure of 1,346,000 students in non-formal higher education appeared in ibid. 26 August 1982, p. 1.

97. GWGB, No. 406 (30 06 1983), p. 494Google Scholar.

98. Guangming ribao, 25 January 1983, p. 1, and 17 April 1983, p. 1.

99. Ibid. 15 July 1983, p. 3.

100. Article by the Educational Bureau of the Ministry of Agriculture, Guangming ribao, 18 February 1983, p. 2. The figure of 30,000 was already referred to by the editorial in Renmin ribao of 24 September 1980, which mentioned one agricultural college graduate tor an average ten communes, that is 5,000.

101. Ibid. 18 February 1983, p. 2.

102. For allusion to such criticism, Renmin ribao, 28 June 1983, p. 3.

103. Ibid.

104. Guangming ribao, 17 March 1983, p. 4.

105. Ibid. 17 March 1983, p. 1.

106. See cases discussed in Guangming ribao, 2 August 1983, p. 1, and 4 August 1983, p. 2.

107. See State Council directive of 28 April on higher education (GWGB, No. 406 (30 06 1983), p. 493)Google Scholar, and Central Document No. 16 of 6 May 1983 on the reform of rural education (GWGB, No. 407 (10 07 1983), p. 531Google Scholar), and note 106 above.

108. Renqiong, Song, “Anzhao geminghua nianqinghua zhishihua zhuanyehua de fangzhen jianshe hao ganbu duiwu” (“Let us build well more revolutionary, younger, better learnt, more specialized cadres contingents”), Renmin ribao, 2 10 1982, p. 2Google Scholar.

109. Guangming ribao, 10 October 1982, p. 1.

110. Ibid. 28 April 1983, p. 1.

111. See interventions at National People's Congress and National Political Consultative Conference meetings, Renmin ribao, 17 June 1983, p. 2; 18 June 1983, p. 4; 19 June 1983, p. 5.

112. Bureau, Beijing for Higher Education uses that ratio (Guangming ribao, 21 02 1983, p. 2Google Scholar), also the vice-minister of agriculture (Guangming ribao, 9 March 1983, p.1).

113. Guangming ribao, 21 February 1983, p. 2, and 1 July 1983, p. 3, reporting an article published in Dongbei shida xuebao (Bulletin of North-east Normal University), No. 2 (1983)Google Scholar.

114. The 1983 figure appeared in Guangming ribao, 21 April 1983, p. 1. The Plan (GWGB, No. 404, p. 391) mentions an enrolment target of 500,000 in 1985 for “specialized secondary schools,” that is both normal and technical schools; the usual proportion assigned to technical schools being three-fifths of the quota, the projected enrolment should be around 300,000Google Scholar.

115. Directive of 28 April 1983, GWGB, No. 406 (30 06 1983), p. 494Google Scholar.

116. Private source quoting official document.

117. A vigorous article, signed Si Yi, denouncing that illusion, mentioned the fact that in Japan professional schools would cost 10 times more than ordinary schools, Guangming nbao, 20 December 1982, p. 2.

118. See the survey on Shaanxi, , Jiangsu, and Anhui, by an official from the Education Bureau of the Ministry of Agriculture, Guangming ribao, 12 12 1982, p. 4Google Scholar; on Liaoning, by the provincial Educational Research Bureau, Jiaoyu yanjiu, No. 5 (1980), pp. 48–52Google Scholar; also the thoughtful article by Yi, Si (probably a high-ranking administrator in the Ministry of Education) spelling out all the problems connected with the failure of agricultural schools since 1949, Guangming ribao, 20 12 1982, p. 2Google Scholar.

119. jiaoyuju, Jiangsu sheng Yangzhou diqu (Educational Bureau of Yangzhou prefectacure in Jiangsu province), “Nongcun zhongdeng jiaoyu jiegou gaige qiantan” (“Prelimisary survey of the reform of rural secondary education structure ”), Jiaoyu yanjiu, No. 3 (1983), pp. 2–5Google Scholar.

120. Ibid.; Renmin ribao, 19 October 1982, p. 2.

121. Guangming ribao, 21 March 1983, p. 2.

122. Only 7–5 per cent in Tianjin: Guangming ribao, 25 September 1977, p. 1.

123. Ibid. 17 March 1983, p. 1.

124. On this concept and the related one of “sponsored mobility,” see Turner, R., “Sponsored and contest mobility and the school system,” American Sociological Review, Vol. 25, No. 6 (1960), pp. 855–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

125. See the summary of discussions at the fourth annual meeting of the Research Society on Comparative Education, Guangming ribao, 9 09 1983, p. 3Google Scholar.