Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-20T15:50:25.932Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Rural Seigneurs and the Counter Reformation: Parishes, Patrons, and Religious Reform in France, 1550–1700

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 June 2018

Elizabeth Tingle
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article examines the role of lay seigneurs in religious change in the French countryside in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, during the Catholic Reformation and a period of socioeconomic change in land ownership and exploitation. The focus here is on middling and lesser lords—the rough equivalent of the English gentry, who held land in a single province or even pays and had a frequent presence in their parishes—rather than the great nobles who operated at a national level. Brittany is used as a case study, for it was a province rich in rural lords and because relatively good source material survives. It is argued that seigneurs were important patrons of religious innovation in the countryside, particularly in the parish church. They were rarely innovators themselves, but they lent support and resources to the introduction and maintenance of new devotional practices. Lords worked closely with clergy, sharing their aspirations and ideas. Four areas were particularly prominent in eliciting their support: appointment of clergy, support of missionaries, new devotional practices, and funding of building projects and liturgies in parish churches. These combined family strategies of enhancing social status and individual means to salvation which were indivisible in the world of the lay rural nobility. It was from a traditional understanding of lordship that patronage of religious reform stemmed.

Type
Articles
Information
Church History , Volume 87 , Issue 1 , March 2018 , pp. 31 - 62
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Church History 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 There are too many works on the counter-reformation in French dioceses to list here, but major studies include Châtellier, Louis, The Religion of the Poor: Rural Missions in Europe and the Formation of Modern Catholicism c. 1500–c. 1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Sauzet, Robert, Contre Réforme et Réforme catholique en Bas-Languedoc: Le diocèse de Nîmes au XVIIe siècle (Brussels: Nauwelaerts, 1979)Google Scholar; Brunet, Serge, “De l'Espagnol dedans le ventre!”: Les catholiques du Sud-Ouest de la France face à la réforme (vers 1540–1589) (Paris: H. Champion, 2007)Google Scholar; Croix, Alain, La Bretagne aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles: La vie–la mort–la foi, 2 vols. (Paris: Maloine, 1981)Google Scholar; Hoffman, P. T., Church and Community in the Diocese of Lyon 1500–1789 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1984)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lemaitre, Nicole, Le Rouergue flamboyant: Le clergé et les fidèles du diocèse de Rodez 1417–1563 (Paris: Cerf, 1988)Google Scholar; Restif, Bruno, La Révolution des paroisses: Culture paroissiale et Réforme catholique en Haute-Bretagne aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles (Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2006)Google Scholar; Hayden, J. Michael, The Catholicisms of Coutances: Varieties of Religion in Early Modern France (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2013)Google Scholar; Goujard, Philippe, Un catholicisme bien tempéré: La vie religieuse dans les paroisses rurales de Normandie (Paris: Éditions du CTHS, 1997)Google Scholar; Peyrous, Bernard, La Réforme catholique à Bordeaux 1600–1719: le renouveau d'un diocese, 2 vols. (Bordeaux: Fédération historique du Sud-Ouest, 1995)Google Scholar; and Martinazzo, Estelle, Toulouse au Grand Siècle: Le rayonnement de la Réforme catholique (1590–1710) (Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2015)Google Scholar.

2 Joseph Bergin refers to the parish's “canonisation” at the center of lay religious life: Bergin, Church, Society and Religious Change in France 1580–1730 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009), 208Google Scholar.

3 Diefendorf, Barbara, Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Huguenots in Sixteenth-Century Paris (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 36Google Scholar.

4 Jackson-Lualdi, Katherine, “Obéir les commandements de Dieu et de l’Église : Culte paroissial et Contre-réforme gallicane,” Revue d'histoire de l’Église de France 84, no. 212 (January–June 1998): 13Google Scholar.

5 See, for example, Ramsay, Anne W., Liturgy, Politics, and Salvation: The Catholic League in Paris and the Nature of Catholic Reform, 1540–1630 (Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 1999)Google Scholar; and Diefendorf, Barbara, From Penitence to Charity: Pious Women and the Counter Reformation in Paris (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004)Google Scholar.

6 There are many local and regional studies. Examples include: Cliffe, J. T., The Yorkshire Gentry from the Reformation to Civil War (London: Athlone, 1969)Google Scholar; Haigh, Christopher, Reformation and Resistance in Tudor Lancashire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975)Google Scholar; Knight, Mark, Piety and Devotion Among the Warwickshire Gentry (Stratford-upon-Avon: Dugdale Society, 1989)Google Scholar; and Marshall, Peter and Scott, Geoffrey, eds., Catholic Gentry in English Society: The Throckmortons of Coughton from Reformation to Emancipation (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009)Google Scholar.

7 The studies of nobility in Brittany which include a discussion of residence are Meyer, Jean, La Noblesse bretonne au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Flammarion, 1972)Google Scholar; Le Goff, Tim J. A., Vannes and its Region: A Study of Town and Country in Eighteenth-Century France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981)Google Scholar; Gallet, Jean, La seigneurie bretonne 1480–1680: L'exemple vannetais (Paris: Université de Paris-Sorbonne, 1983)Google Scholar; and Nassiet, Michel, Noblesse et pauvreté: La petite noblesse en Bretagne XVe-XVIIIe siècles (Mayenne: Société d'histoire et d'archéologie de Bretagne, 1993)Google Scholar.

8 Bois, Guy, The Crisis of Feudalism: Economy and Society in Eastern Normandy c.1300–1550 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 215Google Scholar; and Dontenwill, Serge, Une seigneurie sous l'ancien régime: L'Etoile en Brionnais du XVIe au XVIIIe siècles (1575–1778) (Roanne: Editions Horvath, 1973), 17–18Google Scholar.

9 Hevin, M. P., ed., Coutume de Bretagne et usances de quelques villes et territoires, 3rd ed. (Rennes: Guillaume, 1730), 227Google Scholar. For a detailed account of seigneurial jurisdictions in Brittany, see Giffard, André, Les Justices seigneuriales en Bretagne aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Paris, 1902; repr. Geneva: Megariotis, 1980)Google Scholar.

10 Antoine, Annie, “La seigneurie, la terre et les paysans, XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles,” Bulletin de la société d'histoire modern 1–2, (1999): 15, 21Google Scholar.

11 There are a number of studies of northern French lordships over time. See, in particular, Bois, The Crisis of Feudalism; Bottin, Jacques, Seigneurs et paysans dans l'ouest du pays de Caux 1540–1650 (Paris: Le Sycomore, 1983)Google Scholar; Constant, Jean-Marie, La vie quotidienne de la noblesse française aux XVIe et XVIIe siècle (Paris: Hachette, 1985)Google Scholar; Dewald, Jonathan, Pont-St-Pierre 1398–1789: Lordship, Community, and Capitalism in Early Modern France (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987)Google Scholar; Dewald, Jonathan, Status, Power, and Identity in Early Modern France: The Rohan Family 1550–1715 (University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 2015)Google Scholar; Dontenwill, Une seigneurie sous l'ancien régime; Dufour, Anaïs, Le pouvoir des Dames: femmes et pratiques seigneuriales en Normandie, 1580–1620 (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2013)Google Scholar; Haddad, Elie, Fondation et ruine d'une “maison”: Histoire sociale des comtes de Belin (1582–1706) (Limoges: Presses universitaires de Limoges, 2009)Google Scholar; and Wood, James B., The Nobility of the Election of Bayeux, 1463–1665: Continuity Through Change (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980)Google Scholar.

12 Lordship is used here as a judicial category and can refer to men and women.

13 Contemporary treatises on seigneurial justice include Loyseau, Charles, Traité des seigneuries (Paris, 1608)Google Scholar; Maréchal, Mathias, Traité des droits honorifiques des seigneurs dans les églises [written ca. 1643] (repr. Paris, 1762)Google Scholar; Ferrière, Claude de, Des droits de patronage, de présentation aux bénéfices, de préséance des patrons, des droits honorifique [ . . . ] dans les églises (Paris, 1696)Google Scholar; and Corbin, Jacques, Traité des droits de patronage honorifiques et autres en dépendant, 2 vols. (Paris, 1622)Google Scholar.

14 Prigent, Cristiane, Pouvoir ducal, religion et production artistique en Basse-Bretagne, 1350–1575 (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1992), 24Google Scholar.

15 Meyer, La Noblesse bretonne, 27–29, 33.

16 Billaçois, François, “La Crise de la noblesse européenne (1550–1650): Une mise au point,” Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, 23, no. 2 (April–June 1976): 258–277CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Le Goff, Vannes, 273.

18 See Blaufarb, Rafe, “Conflict and compromise: Communauté and seigneurie in early modern Provence,” Journal of Modern History 82, no. 3 (September 2010): 528CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 Le Goff, Vannes, 274.

20 Meyer, La Noblesse bretonne, 33–35.

21 Saul, Nigel, “The Gentry and the Parish,” in The Parish in Late Medieval England, ed. Burgess, Clive and Duffy, Eamon, Harlaxton Medieval Studies (Donington: Shaun Tyas, 2006), 248–251Google Scholar.

22 The legal rights are described in Loyseau, Traité des seigneuries, 258–271. The best history of pre-eminences for Brittany is Halgouët, Hervé du, “Droits honorifiques et prééminences dans les églises en Bretagne,” Mémoires de la Société d'Histoire et d'Archéologie de Bretagne 4 (1923): 1–57Google Scholar. A detailed examination of the pre-eminences of one lordship in Brittany is Mousset, Albert, Les prééminences d’églises de la maison de Kergorlay en Plougonver et à Bulat-Pestivient (Paris: P. Collemant, 1912)Google Scholar.

23 Antoine, “La seigneurie, la terre et les paysans,” 21.

24 Gallet, La seigneurie bretonne, 435.

25 Roffey, Simon, Chantry Chapels and Medieval Strategies for the Afterlife (Stroud: Tempus, 2008), 19Google Scholar.

26 Noblet, Julien, En perpétuelle mémoire: Collégiales castrales et saintes-chapelles à vocation funéraire en France (1450–1560) (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2009), 212Google Scholar.

27 Prigent, Pouvoir ducal, 267.

28 Ibid., 195.

29 Nassiet, Noblesse et pauvreté, 212.

30 Restif, La Révolution des paroisses, 67.

31 Halgouët, “Droits honorifiques,” 7.

32 Loyseau, Traité des seigneuries, 266.

33 Hayhoe, Jeremy, Enlightened Feudalism: Seigneurial Justice and Village Society in Eighteenth-Century Northern Burgundy (Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2008), 78Google Scholar.

34 Gallet, La seigneurie bretonne, 171.

35 Restif, La Révolution des paroisses, 49, 150.

36 Lagadec, Yves and Restif, Bruno, “Pouvoir et religion dans une paroisse rurale de Haute-Bretagne au XVIe siècle: Le compte de fabrique de Louvigné-de-Bais (1503–1504),” Annales de Bretagne et des Pays de l'Ouest 109, no. 1 (2002): 59Google Scholar.

37 Paramé, Parish Accounts, 1573, 2 G 218/8, Archives Départementales d'Ille-et-Vilaine, quoted in Restif, La Révolution des paroisses, 54.

38 Restif, La Révolution des paroisses, 150.

39 The primary text for the history of Protestantism in Brittany, written ca. 1683, is Noir, Pierre Le, Histoire ecclésiastique de Bretagne depuis la réformation jusqu’à l’édit de Nantes, ed. Vaurigaud, Benjamin (Paris: Grassart, 1851)Google Scholar; also Vaurigaud, Benjamin, Essai sur l'histoire des église reformées de Bretagne 1535–1808, 3 vols. (Paris: Joël Cherbuliez, 1870)Google Scholar. Volume 1 relates the history of the church in Brittany in the sixteenth century.

40 Episcopal Visitation, 1554, G 42, Archives Départementales de la Loire-Atlantique, Nantes, France (hereafter cited as ADLA).

41 Ibid.

42 Article 13, “Édit de janvier,” Éditions en ligne de l’École des chartes (hereafter cited as Élec), http://elec.enc.sorbonne.fr/editsdepacification/edit_01#art_01_13.

43 Article 1, “Édit d'Amboise,” Élec, http://elec.enc.sorbonne.fr/editsdepacification/edit_02#art_02_01.

44 There are many references to Protestant seigneurs in Canon Moreau's contemporary account of the Catholic League wars in western Brittany: Moreau, Jean, Histoire de ce qui s'est passé en Bretagne Durant les guerres de la ligue, et particulièrement dans le diocèse de Cornouaille (c. 1600) (Saint-Brieuc: Prud'homme, 1857)Google Scholar.

45 Articles 7, 8, “Édit de Nantes, Édit général,” Élec, http://elec.enc.sorbonne.fr/editsdepacification/edit_12#art_12_07; for 1665, see Vaurigaud, Essai sur l'histoire des église reformées de Bretagne, 2:334.

46 Hayden, J. Michael and Greenshields, Malcolm, Six Hundred Years of Reform: Bishops and the French Church 1190–1789 (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2005), 382Google Scholar; and Restif, La Révolution des paroisses, 78.

47 Details on seventeenth-century Breton bishops in de la Haut Jussé, Barthélemy Pocquet, “Les évêques de Bretagne dans la renaissance religieuse du 17e siècle,” Annales de Bretagne 54, no. 1 (1947): 30–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

48 See Elwood, Christopher, The Body Broken: The Calvinist Doctrine of the Eucharist and the Symbolisation of Power in Sixteenth-Century France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar.

49 Dompnier, Bernard, “Un aspect de la dévotion eucharistique dans la France du XVIIe siècle: Les prières des quarante-heures,” Revue d'histoire de l’Église de France 67, no. 178 (1981): 5–31Google Scholar.

50 See, for example, a study of the duchess of Longueville and her estates by Hillman, Jennifer, “In Pursuit of Soliltude” in Female Piety and the Counter Reformation in France (London: Routledge, 2015), 101–126Google Scholar.

51 Bernos, Marcel, “Les nobles d'Ancien Régime face à leur conscience,” in Le Second ordre: L’idéal nobiliaire; Hommage à Ellery Schalk, ed. Grell, Chantal and Ramière, Arnaud de Fortanier (Paris: Presses de l'Université de Paris, 1999), 147–148Google Scholar.

52 Meyer, Jean, “Un témoignage exceptionnel sur la noblesse de province à l'orée du XVIIe siècle: Les ‘avis moraux’ de René Fleuriot,” Annales de Bretagne 79, no. 2 (1972): 323–326CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

53 Boschet, Antoine, Le parfait missionnaire ou la vie du R.P. Julien Maunoir SJ (Paris, 1697), 249Google Scholar.

54 Lobineau, Guy-Alexandre, Les vies des saints de Bretagne, ed. Tresvaux, Abbé, 5 vols. (Paris: Méquignon Junior, 1836–1837), 3:429–445Google Scholar.

55 Lobineau, Les vies des saints, 4:259–265.

56 Lobineau, Les vies des saints, 3:448–458.

57 de Chateaubourg, Comte, ed., “Testament de feu Jan Bouan, Seigneur de Logissière, des Plessis et autres,” Bulletin et mémoires de la société archéologique du département d'Ille-et-Vilaine 64 (1939): 104Google Scholar.

58 Cathedral Chapter of Saint-Paul-de-Léon, Titles and Foundations, 6 G 59, Archives Départementales du Finistère, Quimper, France (hereafter cited as ADF).

59 Ancenis, Foundations, G 346, ADLA.

60 Princé, Foundations, 9 G 83, Archives Départementales d'Ille-et-Vilaine, Rennes, France (hereafter cited as ADIV).

61 Tollemer, Abbé, Analyse par l'abbé Tollemer du journal manuscrit d'un sire de Gouberville, gentilhomme campagnard, 4 vols. (Bricqueboscq: Editions du Champs, 1993)Google Scholar (hereafter cited as Gouberville, gentilhomme campagnard), 2:543.

62 See essays in Donnelly, John P. and Maher, Michael W., eds., Confraternities and Catholic Reform in Italy, France, and Spain, Sixteenth-Century Essays and Studies 44 (Kirkville, Mo.: Thomas Jefferson University Press, 1999)Google Scholar; and Croix, Alain, Atlas d'histoire religieuse 1300–1800 (Rennes: Ouest-France, 1985)Google Scholar, 25.

63 Bourg-Paul-Muzillac, Foundations, 114 G 6, Archives Départementales du Morbihan, Vannes, France (hereafter cited as ADM).

64 Sarzeau, Foundations, 182 G 2, ADM.

65 Couffon, René, Répertoire des églises et chapelles des diocèses de Saint-Brieuc et de Tréguier (Saint-Brieuc: Les Presses Bretonnes, 1939), 89Google Scholar.

66 Nivillac, Foundations, G 934, ADM.

67 Piriac, Foundations, G 539, ADLA.

68 Notre-Dame-du-Méné, Foundations, G 1032, ADM.

69 Herbignac, Foundations, G 404, ADLA.

70 Bourg-Paul-Muzillac. Fondations, G 848, ADM.

71 Details on the foundation of the shrine are in Lobineau, Les vies des saints, 3:365–371.

72 Haddad, Fondation et ruine d'une “maison,” 49–50.

73 Boschet, Le parfait missionnaire, 20.

74 Ibid., 264.

75 Ibid., 220.

76 A useful website listing the advowsons of Rennes is “Les Bénéfices du diocese de Rennes,” InfoBretagne, accessed 31 August 2016, http://www.infobretagne.com/benefices_diocese_rennes.htm.

77 Constant, Jean-Marie, La vie quotidienne de la noblesse française aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles (Paris: Hachette, 1985), 214Google Scholar.

78 Tollemer, Gouberville, gentilhomme campagnard, 2:524–525, 531–532.

79 Verjus, Antoine, La Vie de Monsieur de Nobletz, prestre et missionaire de Bretagne (Paris, 1666)Google Scholar.

80 Boschet, Le parfait missionnaire, 215.

81 Lobineau, Les vies des saints, 5:138–174.

82 Archdeacon's Visitation, 1665, G 49, ADLA.

83 Ancenis, Foundations, G 346, ADLA

84 Archdeacon's Visitation, 1665, G 49, ADLA.

85 For more details on the changing nature of the sub-parochial clergy in Brittany, see Tingle, Elizabeth C., “The Prayers of Priests: Chaplains and Intercessions for the Dead,” in Purgatory and Piety in Brittany, 1480–1720 (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012), 221–261Google Scholar.

86 Saint-Sebastien d'Aigne, Fabrique, G 719, ADLA.

87 Allaire, Foundations, 108 G 1, ADM.

88 Lobineau, Les vies des saints, 4:327–334.

89 Archdeacon's Visitation, 1665, G 49, ADLA.

90 Notaire Kermadec, Auray, 1583–1606, 6 E 2183, ADM.

91 Lemarchand, P., “Journal d'un curé de campagne au XVIIIe siècle,” Bulletins et mémoires de la Société d’émulation des Côtes-du-Nord 88, (1960): 56–97Google Scholar.

92 Ibid., 74.

93 Tollemer, Gouberville, gentilhomme campagnard, 2:545.

94 du Cleuziou, Alain Raison, Guillaume de Rosmadec et la seigneurie de Buhen-Lantic (Saint-Brieuc: Francisque Guyon, 1904), 31–33Google Scholar.

95 See Forrestal, Alison, Vincent de Paul, the Lazarist Mission, and French Catholic Reform (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

96 Haddad, Fondation et ruine d'une “maison,” 135.

97 Verjus, La Vie de Monsieur de Nobletz, 303.

98 Boschet, Le parfait missionnaire, 139.

99 Ibid., 324.

100 Ibid., 214.

101 Ibid., 250.

102 Ibid., 368.

103 Lobineau, Les vies des saints, 4:294.

104 Bourg-des-Comptes, Foundations, 1679, 2 G 34/1 & 3, Archives Départementales d'Ille-et-Vilaine, quoted in Restif, La Révolution des paroisses, 221.

105 Gallet, La seigneurie bretonne, 158.

106 Galmiche, M., “Documents pour servir à l'histoire de la paroisse de Pédernec,” Bulletins et mémoires de la Société d’émulation des Côtes-du-Nord 52, (1920): 85–86Google Scholar.

107 Restif, La Révolution des paroisses, 218.

108 Cléguer, Foundations, G 878, ADM.

109 Tingle, “The Individual Alone Before God? Motives of Donors and the Functions of Perpetual Masses,” in Purgatory and Piety in Brittany, 129–174.

110 Restif, La Révolution des paroisses, 220.

111 Notaire Charier de Nantes, 1582–1603, 4E2/487, ADLA.

112 Lesneven, Foundations, 122 G 79, ADF; La Boissière, Foundations, G 356, ADLA.

113 Ancenis, Foundations, G 346, ADLA.

114 Restif, La Révolution des paroisses, 116.

115 Tingle, Elizabeth, “The Counter Reformation and the Parish Church: Parish Closes in Western Brittany (France) 1500–1700,” in Parish Churches in the Early Modern World, ed. Spicer, Andrew (Farnham: Ashgate, 2016), 77–102Google Scholar.

116 Yates, Nigel, Liturgical Space: Christian Worship and Church Buildings in Western Europe 1500–2000 (Aldershot: Routledge, 2008), 15Google Scholar. Andrew Spicer emphasizes the importance of Carlo Borromeo's work in the dissemination of new ideas about chancels: they were to be enlarged, vaulted, and while the high altar continued to be placed against the east wall, modifications made it highly visible to the body of the church. Wide steps were constructed up to the altar, which was built on a platform so that it was in an elevated and visible position: Spicer, Andrew, “Sites of the Eucharist,” in A Companion to the Eucharist in the Reformation, ed. Palmer, Lee Wandel, Brill's Companions to the Christian Tradition 46, (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 357Google Scholar.

117 See the example of Saint-Thégonnec church in Tingle, Elizabeth, “The Catholic Reformation and the Parish: The Church of Saint-Thégonnec (Finistère) 1580–1680,” in The Archaeology of Reformation, ed. Gaimster, David and Gilchrist, Roberta (Leeds: Maney, 2003), 44–57Google Scholar.

118 Noblet, En perpétuelle mémoire, 33.

119 Gallet, La seigneurie bretonne, 459.

120 Restif, La Révolution des paroisses, 198.

121 Both examples given in Halgouët, “Droits honorifiques,” 21, 19, respectively.

122 André, Auguste, “Verrière et vitraux peints dans l'ancienne province de Bretagne,” Bulletin et mémoires de la société archéologique du département d'Ille-et-Vilaine 12 (1878): 224Google Scholar.

123 Restif, La Révolution des paroisses, 61.

124 André, “Verrière et vitraux peints,” 338.

125 Couffon, Répertoire des églises et chapelles des diocèses de Saint-Brieuc et de Tréguier, 55.

126 Restif, La Révolution des paroisses, 250.

127 Lemarchand, “Journal d'un curé de campagne,” 79–80.

128 Morel, Emile, Saint-Pierre de Plesguen, 2 vols. (Rennes: Simon, 1976)Google Scholar, 1:105.

129 Couffon, René and Bars, Alfred Le, Répertoire des églises et chapelles des diocèses de Quimper & de Léon (Saint-Brieuc: Les Presses Bretonnes, 1959), 95Google Scholar.

130 Vanessa Harding, The Dead and the Living in Paris and London, 1500–1670 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

131 Bertrand, Régis, “Limites du rôle des confrèries dans le rayonnement des dévotions en Provence sous l'Ancien Régime,” in Confréries et dévotions dans la catholicité moderne (mi-XVe – début XIXe siècle), ed. Dompnier, Bernard and Vismara, Paula (Rome: Ecole Française de Rome, 2008), 339–354Google Scholar.

132 Roffey, Chantry Chapels, 147.

133 Prigent, Pouvoir ducal, 313.

134 Restif, La Révolution des paroisses, 194.

135 Bertrand, “Limites du rôle des confrèries,” 342–343.

136 Vern-sur-Seiche, Foundations, 9 G 47, ADIV.

137 Orgères, Foundations, 9 G 45, ADIV.

138 For details on Purgatory and post-mortem intercession, see Tingle, Purgatory and Piety.

139 Dudoret, Louis, Seigneurs et seigneuries au pays de Beffou XVe-XVIIIe siècles (Guingamp: Editions de la Plomée, 2000)Google Scholar, 43; and Family of Kerroué, 103 J 3, Archives Départementales des Côtes d'Armor, Saint-Brieuc, France.

140 Guégen, Louise, will dated 1664, reproduced in Croix, La Bretagne, 2:1383Google Scholar.

141 Piriac, Foundations, G 539, ADLA.

142 Diocese of Vannes, Insinuations, 42 G 4, ADM; and Couffon and Le Bars, Répertoire des églises et chapelles des diocèses de Quimper & de Léon, 64. The popularity of donations of ornaments is seen in other studies as well, such as Dontenwill, Une seigneurie sous l'ancien regime, 110.

143 Marshall, Peter, Beliefs and the Dead in Reformation England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.