¹ Foucault, Michel, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (Paris, 1975, and in English translation by Sheridan, A. for Harmondsworth, 1985)Google Scholar. Identification of Foucault's understanding of the Panopticon in terms of mere surveillance has recently been challenged by Anne Brunon-Ernst, “When Foucault Reads Bentham,” paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the the Law and Society Association, Berlin, 25 July 2007, http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p178059_index.html.

² Let me provide just a few references from the huge bibliography about Foucault and his interpretation of the Panopticon: McKinlay, Alain and Starkey, Ken, eds., Foucault, Management and Organization Theory: From Panopticon to Technologies of Self (London: Sage Publications, 1998)Google Scholar; Semple, Janet, “Foucault and Bentham: A Defence of Panopticism,” Utilitas, 4, 1 (1992): 105–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Grenier, Jean-Yves and Orléan, André, “Michel Foucault, L'économie politique et le libéralisme,” Annales HSC 5 (2007): 1155–82Google Scholar; Abélès, Marc, Anthropologie de l'Etat (Paris: Payot, 1990)Google Scholar; Louise Warriar, Andrew Robert, and Jennifer Lewis, Surveillance: An Analysis of Jeremy Bentham and Michel Foucault and Their Present-Day Relevance, http://www.mdx.ac.uk/WWW/STUDY/ybenfou.htm.

³ Simon Werrett, “Potemkin and the Panopticon: Samuel Bentham and the Architecture of Absolutism in Eighteenth-Century Russia,” The Philosophic Age Almanac 9 (issue on “The Science of Morality: Jeremy Bentham and Russia”) (1999): 106–35. See also Christie, Ian R., The Benthams in Russia, 1780–1791 (Oxford: Berg, 1993)Google Scholar; Christie, Ian R., “Samuel Bentham and the Western Colony at Krichev, 1784–1787,” Slavonic and East European Review 48, 111 (1970): 232–47Google Scholar; Montefiore, Simon Sebag, “Prince Potemkin and the Benthams: The Project to Create an English Village with Modern Factories in Belorussia,” History Today 52, 8 (Aug. 2003): 38–43Google Scholar; Montefiore, Simon Sebag, Prince of Princes: The Life of Potemkin (London: Phoenix Press, 2001)Google Scholar; Cross, Alexander G., By the Banks of the Neva: Chapters from the Lives and Careers of the British in Eighteenth-Century Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴ Blum, Jerome, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961)Google Scholar; Gershenkron, Alexander, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962)Google Scholar; Crisp, Olga, Studies in Russian Economy before 1914 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bartlett, Roger, “Serfdom and State Power in Imperial Russia,” European History Quarterly 33, 1 (2003): 29–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hellie, Richard, Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kolchin, Peter, Unfree Labour: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987)Google Scholar; Bush, Michael, ed., Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996)Google Scholar; Field, Daniel, The End of Serfdom: Nobility and Bureaucracy in Russia, 1855–1861 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976)Google Scholar.

⁵ I have developed these points elsewhere. On historical intellectual debates in Russia and the “West” in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries on slavery, serfdom, and labor constraints, see: Stanziani, Alessandro, “Free Labor-Forced Labor: An Uncertain Boundary? The Circulation of Economic Ideas between Russia and Europe from the 18^th to the Mid-19^th Century,” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 9, 1 (2008): 27–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the historical practices of slavery in Russia as compared to other forms of slavery and bondage, see: Stanziani, Alessandro, “Serfs, Slaves, or Wage Earners? The Legal Status of Labour in Russia from a Comparative Perspective, from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Global History 3, 2 (July 2008): 183–202CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶ For my sources, I have utilized contemporary works published in Britain, Russia, and other European countries, including legal sources such as laws, case-law, and jurisprudence, and Russian archival sources. The latter are mostly estate archives and local courts litigations available at the Russian State Archives of Ancient Acts (RGADA), and the Central State Historical Archive in Moscow (TsGIAM).

⁷ Ekaterina non: Zakalinskaia, Evgeniia P., Votchinnye khoziaistva Mogiliovskoi gubernii vo vtoroi polovine XVIII veka (Noble estates in the province of Mogilyov during the second half of the eighteenth century) (Mogilyov: Mogilevskii oblast' Kraeved. muzei, 1958), 27Google Scholar, 34.

⁸ Montefiore “Prince Potemkin.”

⁹ Bentham, Jeremy, The Correspondence of Jeremy Bentham, 12 vols., Sprigge, Timothy L. S., ed. (London: Athlone Press, 1968–2006), v. 2, 504Google Scholar; The Works of Jeremy Bentham, 11 vols., John Bowring, ed. (Edinburgh: William Tait, 1838–1843), v. 10, 161; Werrett, “Potemkin and the Panopticon”; Christie, Benthams in Russia; Christie, “Samuel Bentham and the Western Colony”; Montefiore, “Prince Potemkin.”

¹⁰ Bowring, Works of Jeremy Bentham, v. 10, 161.

¹¹ Bentham, Correspondence, v. 3, 498.

¹² Ibid., 503, 509–12.

¹³ Bowring, Works of Jeremy Bentham, v. 4, 41.

¹⁴ Bentham, J., The Panopticon Writings, Bozevic, Miran, ed. (London: Verso, 1995)Google Scholar, letter 1.

¹⁵ Bentham, Jeremy, “Panopticon”: or, the Inspection-House … in a Series of Letters, Written in the Year 1787, from Crechoff in White Russia, to a Friend in England, 1 vol. (Dublin: Thomas Byrne, 1791; and in 2 vols., London: T. Payne, 1791)Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Werrett, “Potemkin and the Panopticon.”

¹⁷ Blum, Lord and Peasant; Dennison, Tracy K., “Did Serfdom Matter? Russian Rural Society, 1750–1860,” Historical Research 79, 203 (2003): 74–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸ Confino, Michael, Domaines et seigneurs en Russie vers la fin du XVIIIe siècle: Étude de structures agraires et de mentalités économiques (Paris: Institut d'études slaves de l'Université de Paris, 1963), 39Google Scholar, et seq.; Sivkov, K. V., “Nakazy upraviteliiam XVIII v. kak istochnik dlia istorii sel'skogo khoziaistva v Rossii” (Eighteenth-century estate regulation as a source for the history or rural economy in Russia), in Sbornik akademika B. D. Grekova ko dniu 70-letiia (Moskva: Nauka, 1952), 241–46Google Scholar; Sivkov, K. V., “Istochniki po istorii sel'skogo khoziaistva Evropeiskoi Rossii vo vtoroi polovine XVIII veka” (Sources of the history of agriculture of European Russia during the second half of the eighteenth century), Problemy istochnikovedeniia (Problems of historiography) VIII (Moskva: Nauka, 1959)Google Scholar; Rubinshtein, Nikolai L., Sel'skoe khoziaistvo Rossii vo vtoroi polovine XVIII v. (Russian agriculture during the second half of the eighteenth century) (Moskva: Nauka, 1957)Google Scholar; Edgar Melton, Enlightened Seigniorialism and Its Dilemma in Serf Russia, 1750–1830, Journal of Modern History 62, 4 (1990): 675–708.

¹⁹ Confino, Domaines et seigneurs, 40.

²⁰ Confino, Domaines et seigneurs; Melton, “Enlightened Seigniorialism”; Rubinshtein, Sel'skoe khoziaistvo; Sivkov “Istochniki po istorii.”

²¹ Aleksandrov, Viktor A., Sel'skaia obshchina v Rossii, XVIII–nachalo XIXe veka (The agrarian commune in Russia, eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries) (Moskva: Nauka, 1976)Google Scholar.

²² Dennison, 2003; Confino, Domaines et seigneurs.

²³ Raeff, Marc, The Well-Ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change through Law in the Germanies and Russia, 1600–1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983)Google Scholar.

²⁴ Confino, Domaines et seigneurs; Melton, “Enlightened Seigniorialism.” As examples, see: Mikhail Golitsyn, “Polozhenie dlia krest'ian Efremovskoi votchiny sela Mikhailovskogo derevni Varvarovki 1839 g.” (The conditions of peasants of the estate Efremovskii, village of Varvarovki in 1839), in M. V. Dovnar-Zapol'skii, ed., Materialy dlia istorii votchonnogo upravleniia v Rossii (Kiev: Tipography Imperatorskogo Universiteta, n.d.), 276–80.

²⁵ Confino, Domaines et seigneurs; Bush, , Serfdom and Slavery (London and New York: Longman, 1996)Google Scholar.

²⁶ Confino, Domaines et seigneurs, 44; Kliengstaedt, T. I., “Iz'iasnenie sposoba k pooshchreniiu zemledel'tsov k trudoliubiiu” (Encouraging attitudes to labor of rural populations), Trudy IVEO XVI (1770): 248Google Scholar.

²⁷ Dennison, Tracy and Ogilvie, Sheilagh, “Serfdom and Social Capital in Bohemia and Russia,” Economic History Review 60, 3 (2007), 513–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁸ See, for example, Confino, Domaines et seigneurs; Melton, “Enlightened Seigniorialism,” 702–4; and the special issue of Istoricheskie zapiski 37 (1951). Also see Bohac, Rodney, “Everyday Forms of Resistance: Serf Opposition to Gentry Exactions, 1800–1861,” in Kingston-Mann, Esther and Mixter, Timothy, eds., Peasant Economy, Culture and Politics of European Russia, 1800–1921 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 230–60Google Scholar; Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling, Structures of Society: Imperial Russia's “People of Various Ranks” (DeKalb: University of Illinois Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling, Social Identity in Imperial Russia (DeKalb: University of Illinois Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

²⁹ Police archives reproduced in Materialy dlia istorii krepostnogo prava v Rossii: Izvlecheniia iz sekretnykh otchetov ministerstva vnutrennykh del za 1836–1856 gg (Berlin: Behrs Buchnandlung, 1873). Also see: Zaĭonchkovskiĭ, Petr Andreevich, Otmena krepostnogo prava v Rossii, 3d ed (Moskva: Izd-vo Kniga, 1968)Google Scholar, and its English translation: The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia, Susan Wobst, ed. and trans. (Gulf Breeze, Fl.: Academic International Press, 1978).

³⁰ Confino, Domaines et seigneurs; Moon, David, The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia, 1762–1907 (New York: Longman, 2001)Google Scholar.

³¹ Vorontsov, R., “O sposobakh k ispravleniiu sel'skogo domostroitel'estva,” Trudy IVEO 5 (1765): 1–13Google Scholar; Melton, “Enlightened Seigniorialism,” 692.

³² The archive of this estate is in RGADA, fond 1287 Sheremetevy, opis' 3, chast' 2. On this, see: Wirtschafter, Social Identity; Hartley, Janet, “Catherine's Conscience Court—An English Equity Court?” in Cross, A. G., ed, Russia and the West in the Eighteenth Century (Newtonville, Mass.: Oriental Research Partners, 1983), 306–18Google Scholar; Kamenskii, A. B., “Soslovnaia politika Ekateriny II,” Voprosy Istorii 3 (1995): 41–42Google Scholar.

³³ R. Vorontsov, “O sposobakh”; Indova, E. I., “Instrukciia kniazia M. Shcherbatova prikazchikam ego iaroslavskikh votchin” (Instructions of Prince Shcherbatov for his domain in Iaroslav), Materialy po istorii sel'skogo khoziaistva SSSR 6 (1965)Google Scholar, article 44: 460. Rubinshtein, Sel'skoe khoziaistvo.

³⁴ Confino, Domaines et seigneurs; Melton, “Enlightened Seigniorialism.”

³⁵ Christie, “Samuel Bentham and the Western Colony.”

³⁶ Among estate archives, see: Lievens' Estates, Province of Kostroma, British Library, additional manuscripts 47422-8, exploited by Melton, “Enlightened Seigniorialism.” The notarial and patrimonial funds (votchinnye fondy) include documents such as the podvornye opisi collected by the votchinnaia administratsiia. These opisi were made by representatives of the zemskii sud (rural law court) with the help of dvoriany representatives, as scheduled in Svod zakonov (1842, t. X, st 3823, 9253). Juridical and administrative concerns linked to these sources were objects of dispute among administrations, in particular between the ministries of interior and finance. They were solved by the eighth section of the Senate, whose archives are in RGIA (Russian Imperial Archives), fond 1584. In Moscow, archives (TsGIAM) are available for the funds of the Moskovskii gubernsk. Pravelenie, concerning transactions on estates and including details on capital, buildings, population, and so forth. Detailed estate archives in RGADA include: f. 1252, opis' 1: Abamelek-Lazarevy (Tula province); f. 1282, Tolstye-kristi (Riazan province); f. 1262, opis' 1 (Gagarin estates in the provinces of Saratov and Tambov); opis'4, Gagarin's estate at Oetrovskoe; f. 1273, opis' 1, Orlov-Davydov's estate in staraia gat', province of Tula; f. 1290, opis' 3, Iusupovs' estates in provinces of Orlov, Kursk, and Voronezh; f. 1281, opis' 1, Talyzins' estate at Samara; RGIA, f. 1584, Chebyshevs' estate, Tula. On these sources, see Indova, E. I., Krepostnoe khoziaistvo v nachale XIXe veka (Serfdom economics in the early nineteenth century) (Moskva: Izdatel'stvo AN SSSR, 1951), 154Google Scholar, and appendix III; Koval'chenko, I. D., Russkoe krepostnoe krest'ianstvo v pervoi polovine XIXe v (Russian serfdom economy during the first half of the nineteenth century) (Moskva: Nauka, 1967)Google Scholar.

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³⁸ Confino, Domaines et seigneurs, 207, et seq. On the urban activities of private peasants: RGADA, f. 294, opis' 2 and 3; f. 1287, opis' 3. TsGIAM, opis' 2, dela 31, 40, 82, 124, 146.

³⁹ Melton, Edgar, “Proto-Industrialization, Serf Agriculture and Agrarian Social Structure: Two Estates in Nineteenth-Century Russia,” Past and Present 115 (May 1987): 69–106CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁰ Examples in RGADA: f. 294, opis' 2, several dela; TsGIAM, opis' 2, dela 31, 50, 82, 124, 146.

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⁸² Bentham, Correspondence, v. 4, 40.

⁸³ The Panopticon Writings (see note 12 for full citation) were systematized and partly abridged in five editions of Bentham's works. The cited edition contains letters from Russia, as well as the final published version of the Panopticon. On this subject, see Schofield, Philip, Pease-Watkins, Catherine, and Blamires, Cyprian, Rights, Representation, and Reform: Nonsense Upon Stilts and other Writings on the French Revolution (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2002)Google Scholar; and Catherine Pease-Watkins, “Bentham's Panopticon and Dumont's Panopticon,” University College London, Bentham project, www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project.

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¹⁰⁵ Deakin and Wilkinson, Law of the Labour Market, 80.